Queen of Cups is a card used in Latin suited playing cards (Italian, Spanish and tarot decks). It is the Queen from the suit of Cups. In Tarot, it is part of what tarot card readers call the "Minor Arcana".

Tarot cards are used throughout much of Europe to play tarot card games.

In English-speaking countries, where the games are largely unknown, Tarot cards came to be utilized primarily for divinatory purposes.

Divination usage

The card depicts a mature woman of fair-complexion and golden hair who holds a lidded cup or chalice. She is described as a model of a loving virtue, one who is purer of heart than most, a loving mother, and a loyal friend. The inverted card may warn the querent of a false lover or a deceitful friend or companion who may have a secret; someone who pretends to be pure of heart but is actually treacherous and manipulative.

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The Grey Cup (French: Coupe Grey) is the name of both the championship game of the Canadian Football League (CFL) and the trophy awarded to the victorious team playing Canadian football. It is contested between the winners of the CFL's East and West Divisional playoffs and is one of Canadian television's largest annual sporting events. The Toronto Argonauts have 16 championships, more than any other team. The latest, the 104th Grey Cup, took place in Toronto, Ontario, on November 27, 2016, when the Ottawa Redblacks defeated the Calgary Stampeders 39â€"33 in overtime.

The trophy was commissioned in 1909 by the Earl Grey, then Canada's governor general, who originally hoped to donate it for the country's senior amateur hockey championship. After the Allan Cup was later donated for that purpose, Grey instead made his trophy available as the "Canadian Dominion Football Championship" (national championship) of Canadian football. The trophy has a silver chalice attached to a large base on which the names of all winning teams, players and executives are engraved. The Grey Cup has been broken on several occasions, stolen twice and held for ransom. It survived a 1947 fire that destroyed numerous artifacts housed in the same building.

The Grey Cup was first won by the University of Toronto Varsity Blues. Play was suspended from 1916 to 1918 due to the First World War and in 1919 due to a rules dispute. The game has typically been contested in an east versus west format since the 1920s. Traditionally held on a Sunday at the end of November, the Grey Cup has been played in inclement weather at times, including the 1950 "Mud Bowl," in which a player reportedly came close to drowning in a puddle, then the 1962 "Fog Bowl," when the final nine minutes of the game had to be postponed to the following day due to a heavy fog, and the 1977 "Ice Bowl," contested on the frozen-over artificial turf at Montreal's Olympic Stadium. The Edmonton Eskimos formed the Grey Cup's longest dynasty, winning five consecutive championships from 1978 to 1982. Competition for the trophy has been exclusively between Canadian teams, except for a three-year period from 1993 to 1995, when an expansion of the CFL south into the United States re sulted in the Baltimore Stallions winning the 1995 championship and taking the Grey Cup south of the border for the first time.

History

Creation and early years (1909â€"1921)

While the Stanley Cup was created in 1893 as the Canadian amateur hockey championship, professional teams were openly competing for the trophy by 1907. Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey, the Governor General of Canada, planned to donate a new trophy to serve as the senior amateur championship; however, Sir Montague Allan donated the Allan Cup before he could finalize his plans. Grey instead offered an award to the Dominion amateur rugby football championship beginning in 1909. He initially failed to follow through on his offer; the trophy was not ordered until two weeks prior to the first championship game.

The first Grey Cup game was held on December 4, 1909, between two Toronto clubs: the University of Toronto Varsity Blues defeated the Parkdale Canoe Club 26â€"6 before 3,800 fans. The trophy was not ready for presentation following the game, and the Varsity Blues did not receive it until March 1910. They retained the trophy in the following two years, defeating the Hamilton Tigers in 1910 and the Toronto Argonauts in 1911. The University of Toronto failed to reach the 1912 Grey Cup, which was won by the Hamilton Alerts over the Argonauts. The Varsity Blues refused to hand over the trophy on the belief they could keep it until they were defeated in a title game. They kept the trophy until 1914 when they were defeated by the Argonauts, who made the trophy available to subsequent champions.

Canada's participation in the First World War resulted in the cancellation of the championship from 1916 to 1918, during which time the Cup was forgotten. Montreal Gazette writer Bob Dunn claimed that the trophy was later rediscovered as "one of the family heirlooms" of an employee of the Toronto trust company where it had been sent for storage. The Grey Cup game was also cancelled in 1919 due to a lack of interest from the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union (IRFU) and the intercollegiate unions, along with rules conflicts between the Canadian Rugby Union (CRU) and the western union. Competition finally resumed in 1920 with the 8th Grey Cup game, won 16â€"3 by the Varsity Blues over the Argonauts. It was the University of Toronto's fourth, and final, championship.

Western competition (1922â€"1932)

Competition for the Grey Cup was limited to member unions of the CRU, the champions of which petitioned the league body for the right to challenge for the national championship. The Western Canada Rugby Football Union joined in 1921, allowing the Edmonton Eskimos to challenge. Facing the Argonauts in the 9th Grey Cup, the Eskimos became the first western team â€" and the first from outside Toronto or Hamilton â€" to compete for the trophy. The Argonauts entered the game with an undefeated record, having outscored their opposition 226 to 55 during the season. They dominated Edmonton, recording the first shutout in Grey Cup history with a 23â€"0 victory. Multi-sport star Lionel Conacher was Toronto's top player, scoring 15 of his team's points before leaving the game after the third quarter to join his hockey team for their game. Edmonton challenged for the trophy again in 1922, but lost 13â€"1 to their eastern opposition, the Queen's University Golden Gaels. For Queen's, it was the first of three consecutive titles.

Western teams continued to vie for the trophy, but were consistently outclassed for several years. Eastern teams and critics felt the quality of the western game was inferior to theirs, and when Queen's defeated the Regina Rugby Club 54â€"0 in the 1923 final, the critics felt they deliberately ran up the score to prove that point. Regina was western Canada's dominant team, appearing in the Grey Cup on six occasions between 1928 and 1934, but lost to their eastern opponents each time. Regina helped revolutionize Canadian football in 1929, however, as they attempted the first forward pass in Grey Cup history. The Winnipeg 'Pegs (now the Blue Bombers) became the first western Grey Cup champion in 1935 when they defeated the Hamilton Tigers, 18â€"12. While the Grey Cup was slow to achieve national popularity, the advent of the east versus west format helped make the game the nation's largest sporting event.

Canadian Football League (1933â€"1956)

As the quality of senior football improved, university teams realized they were no longer able to compete on equal footing and withdrew from competition for the Grey Cup in 1933. By 1938, only three unions continued to compete under the banner of the CRU: the IRFU and the Ontario Rugby Football Union (ORFU) in the east, and the Western Interprovincial Football Union (WIFU) in the west. The CRU experimented with a two-game, total points series to determine the champion in 1940. The Ottawa Rough Riders won both games against Toronto's Balmy Beach, 8â€"2 and 12â€"5. The Grey Cup returned to its one-game format the following year.

Both the IRFU and WIFU suspended operations in 1942 due to the Second World War. Grey Cup play was expected to be suspended along with the unions; however, the military felt the game and sport would serve as a morale booster and organized teams at bases across the country. For the following three years, Grey Cup competition was limited to military teams, and in the 1942 Grey Cup, the Toronto RCAF Hurricanes defeated the Winnipeg RCAF Bombers 8â€"5 to become the first non-civilian team to win the national championship. Two years later, the St. Hyacintheâ€"Donnacona Navy defeated the Hamilton Flying Wildcats, 7â€"6; no Grey Cup championship since then has featured two eastern teams. The conclusion of the war led to the reformation of civilian teams; the IRFU resumed play in 1945, and the WIFU the following year.

A push by the sport's organizers to adopt an increasingly professional attitude dominated the post-war period: poor field conditions, previously accepted as part of the game, resulted in numerous complaints against the CRU following the 1949 and 1950 Grey Cups. Field conditions at Toronto's Varsity Stadium were so poor in 1950 that the game has since gained infamy as the "Mud Bowl". Deep ruts in the field and poor weather in the days leading up to the game resulted in a sloppy field covered in large puddles of water. The game also gained notoriety for the near drowning of Winnipeg's Buddy Tinsley, who was found face down in a large puddle, apparently unconscious. Tinsley later said that he had not lost consciousness, but his leg had gone numb from a hard hit to a preexisting injury. Toronto won the game 13â€"0, the last time a team has been shut out in a Grey Cup game.

The ORFU, the last purely amateur union competing for the Grey Cup, withdrew from Cup competition in 1954. Although the IRFU and WIFU champions had faced each other in the Grey Cup final since 1945, the ORFU's withdrawal left the IRFU and WIFU unchallenged as Canada's top football unions. The Eskimos faced the Montreal Alouettes in three consecutive Grey Cups in the mid-1950s, winning all three. Edmonton's third title in 1956 ended in bizarre fashion: after Jackie Parker scored a touchdown late in the game that gave Edmonton a 50â€"27 lead, fans swarmed the field in celebration. Once officials cleared the field, they discovered that the game ball had disappeared into the crowd. Unable to find another, officials declared the game over. Edmonton was unable to attempt the conversion on their final touchdown. The game also marked the end of the amateur era as the top teams completed their transition to professional organizations.

As the 1950s wore on, the IRFU and WIFU distanced themselves from the CRU, forming the Canadian Football Council in 1956 to administer the game at the professional level. Two years later, on January 18, 1958, the CFC withdrew from the CRU and reorganized as the Canadian Football League (CFL). The new league formally assumed control of the Grey Cup from the CRU.

Fog Bowl (1957â€"1969)

In the CFL's initial seasons, the Hamilton Tiger-Cats were the league's dominant team, appearing in nine Grey Cups and winning four titles between 1957 and 1967. The Winnipeg Blue Bombers opposed Hamilton on six of those occasions, winning four titles. The two teams were involved in a series of bizarre incidents, the first occurring during the 1957 Grey Cup. Toronto-based lawyer and fan David Humphrey had talked his way past stadium security and had been allowed to watch the game from the sidelines. Ten minutes into the fourth quarter, Hamilton's Ray Bawel intercepted a pass and it appeared he would return the ball for a touchdown when Humphrey stuck his leg out and tripped Bawel as he ran up the sideline. Unsure how to handle the situation as there was no rule designed to cover it, referee Paul Dojack invented one on the spot. He placed the ball half the distance to the Winnipeg goal line from the point Bawel was tripped. The incident did not affect the final score, as Hamilton w on 32â€"7. The league also created a new rule during the 1961 Grey Cup as it was the first in history to end regulation time in a tie: CFL Commissioner Sid Halter determined the teams would play an overtime period that consisted of two five-minute halves. That rule remained the CFL standard into the 2000s. Winnipeg scored the lone touchdown in overtime to defeat Hamilton 21â€"14.

Winnipeg and Hamilton met again in 1962, the 50th Grey Cup, immortalized as the "Fog Bowl". The game was held at Toronto's Exhibition Stadium, and began on Saturday, December 1, 1962. The fog rolled in early in the second quarter and became increasingly dense as the game progressed. By the fourth quarter, the players were unable to see the sideline markers and the fans unable to see the play. The players were unable to see the ball in the air â€" kick returners listened for the sound of the ball hitting the ground â€" and the action was largely invisible to the television audience. With nine minutes and twenty-nine seconds remaining in the game and Winnipeg holding onto a 28â€"27 lead, officials made the unprecedented decision to suspend play until the next day. Though the league feared that continuing fog on the morning of December 2 would force the complete abandonment of the game, it lifted in time for the contest to resume. Around 15,000 of the original 32,655 spectators watch ed Winnipeg win the Grey Cup without further scoring by either team. It was the first title game completed on a Sunday; the Grey Cup moved from its traditional Saturday start to Sunday in 1969.

Eskimos' dynasty (1970â€"1988)

The Montreal Alouettes' 1970 Grey Cup championship, an upset win over the favoured Calgary Stampeders, served as a morale booster for the city of Montreal, which was reeling in the aftermath of the October Crisis. The 1970s belonged to the Edmonton Eskimos, however, as they ended the decade as one of the most dominant teams in CFL history, reaching the Grey Cup nine times between 1973 and 1982. The team competed in three consecutive finals early in the decade, losing to Ottawa in 1973 and Montreal in 1974, before winning the franchise's fourth championship in 1975. The 1975 championship was held in Calgary and was the first Grey Cup played on the Canadian Prairies. A young woman infamously streaked across the field during the national anthem despite frigid temperatures well below freezing. The only time the Eskimos did not reach the Grey Cup final during this span was in 1976, when the Saskatchewan Roughriders met the Ottawa Rough Riders. Both teams would fight a see-saw battle, w hich was decided in the dying seconds of the game when Ottawa quarterback Tom Clements threw to Tony Gabriel, which stood out as the winning touchdown, 23-20. The 1977 Grey Cup was the first held at Olympic Stadium in Montreal, contested by the home town Alouettes and the Eskimos in front of a record crowd of 68,318. The game became known as the "Ice Bowl", as low temperatures froze snow on the field that had been melted by groundskeepers with salt, making the artificial turf extremely slippery. The Alouettes adapted to the field conditions by affixing staples to the soles of their shoes, improving their traction, and won the game by a 41â€"6 score.

Upset at losing the 1977 game under poor weather conditions, the Eskimos hoped for a rematch with Montreal in 1978. Both teams reached the final game, which Edmonton won 20â€"13. It was the first of five consecutive championships, a streak that remains unmatched in the history of the Grey Cup. The Eskimos' dynasty dominated the league, losing a total of only six games during the three seasons from 1979 to 1981. The 1981 Grey Cup was expected to be yet another easy win for Edmonton, who posted a 14â€"1â€"1 record during the season and were considered overwhelming favourites against the 5â€"11 Ottawa Rough Riders. The first half did not go as Edmonton hoped, though, as Ottawa emerged with a 20â€"1 lead. Quarterback Warren Moon led the Eskimos back in the second half, and with the game tied at 23, Dave Cutler kicked the game-winning field goal with just three seconds remaining.

Edmonton's championship run came to an end in 1983 when they failed to reach the final; the Argonauts defeated the BC Lions to win the championship. Despite Toronto's win, the CFL felt that the overall quality of play in the East Division had deteriorated compared to that of the West. In 1986, it altered the playoff format to allow the first non-playoff team in one division to take the last playoff spot, but stay in their division if they had a better record. The consequences of the new rules were felt immediately, as the league gave a playoff spot to the Stampeders having a better record than the Alouettes, and decided the East Division Final would be a 2-game-total-point Final between the Toronto Argonauts and the Hamilton Tiger-Cats, who finished first and second, respectively. The crossover, if necessary, would begin in 1987. In financial difficulty, the loss of the playoff spot was disastrous for Montreal, which ceased operations one year later. Reduced to eight teams, the CF L shifted Winnipeg to the East Division, making the 1988 Grey Cup between the Blue Bombers and Lions the first championship game between two western Canadian teams.

CFL USA (1989â€"1995)

The 1989 Grey Cup is considered one of the finest games in Canadian football history: The Saskatchewan Roughriders defeated the Hamilton Tiger-Cats 43â€"40 in the highest scoring Grey Cup game of all-time. Saskatchewan kicker Dave Ridgway's last-second field goal won the game and made him a legend in the prairie province.

Declining interest in the CFL during the 1990s left the league in financial difficulty. Hoping to restore the league's credibility with fans, a new ownership group featuring Bruce McNall, hockey player Wayne Gretzky and actor John Candy purchased the Toronto Argonauts in 1991 and lured American college standout Rocket Ismail to Canada with a four-year, $26.2 million contract which made him the highest paid player in football history at that time. The Argonauts reached the 1991 Grey Cup and defeated the Calgary Stampeders 36â€"21. With 261 all-purpose yards on the game, including a then-Grey Cup record 87-yard kickoff return for a touchdown, Ismail was named Grey Cup Most Valuable Player.

The potential for the league to enter the American market was discussed in 1987 when operators of the defunct United States Football League approached the CFL about merging the two leagues. The league showed little interest at the time, but as it continued its decline, the CFL reevaluated its position. In 1992, the CFL announced that it would expand into the United States. The Sacramento Gold Miners joined the league and became the first American team eligible to win the Grey Cup. The league added three additional American teams in 1994 and two in 1995 (with one team folding), but the initiative failed in most markets, and by 1996, the CFL again operated exclusively within Canada.

The lone successful American market was in Baltimore, home to the Stallions. The team averaged over 35,000 fans per game in its inaugural season, nearly double that of Toronto or Hamilton. They matched that success on the field by becoming the first American team to play in the Grey Cup. The BC Lions kept the Grey Cup in Canada with a 26â€"23 victory in the 1994 final. Baltimore returned to the title game one year later and became the only American team to win the trophy by defeating the Calgary Stampeders, 37â€"20. The relocation of the National Football League's Cleveland Browns to Baltimore in 1996 caused the Stallions to seek a new city to avoid direct competition with an NFL team. The team moved to Montreal, forming the current incarnation of the Alouettes franchise and ending the CFL's excursion into the United States.

Renaissance (1996â€"present)

The league approached the 1996 Grey Cup in dire financial straits: the American expansion had been a failure, the 120-year-old Ottawa Rough Riders franchise ceased operations at the conclusion of the regular season, and out of the eight remaining teams, seven had lost money and two required direct assistance from the league to stay afloat. The Edmonton Eskimos could not afford to bring their players' families to the championship game. The Toronto Star echoed fears spoken by fans and media across the country when it asked if the 1996 championship, won by Toronto over Edmonton, would be the final Grey Cup.

While the league struggled, the Grey Cup game itself retained its popularity and remained a national institution. The strength of the contest allowed the league to endure its challenges. The CFL survived into 1997 and was buoyed by a new television deal with The Sports Network which, along with the launch of its popular Friday Night Football program, has been credited with saving the league. That year's Grey Cup, held in Edmonton and won by Toronto, drew nearly 22,000 more fans than the previous year. The CFL restored its reputation over time, enjoying new popularity into the 2000s such that it no longer had to rely on an exciting Grey Cup final to achieve stability for the next season.

In 2000, the 8â€"10 BC Lions made history when they defeated the Montreal Alouettes, 28â€"26, becoming the first team in history to win the Grey Cup with a losing record in the regular season. In the game, 25-year veteran Lui Passaglia ended the longest career in CFL history by kicking what was ultimately the game-winning field goal. The Calgary Stampeders matched the Lions' feat the next year by becoming the second 8â€"10 team to win the Grey Cup, defeating the Winnipeg Blue Bombers by a 27â€"19 score in front of 65,255 fans, the second largest crowd in the game's history.

The 2005 Grey Cup was the second overtime game in Grey Cup history, and the first one using the league's shootout overtime format (introduced in 2000). Both the Eskimos and Alouettes scored touchdowns on their first possessions, while Edmonton scored a field goal in its second and held Montreal scoreless to win the game by a 38â€"35 score. The game was played in the middle of a stretch of eight Grey Cup appearances by the Alouettes between 2000 and 2010. In 2009, they defeated the Roughriders in dramatic fashion: placekicker Damon Duval missed a last-second field goal attempt that appeared to give Saskatchewan the victory. However, the Riders were penalized for having too many men on the field, allowing Duval a second opportunity. His second attempt was successful, giving Montreal a 28â€"27 victory.

The 100th Grey Cup game was played on November 25, 2012 at the Rogers Centre in Toronto between the Toronto Argonauts and the Calgary Stampeders. The Toronto Argonauts won the Grey Cup with a score of 35â€"22.

As per a new title sponsorship deal with Shaw Communications announced in May 2015, the event will henceforth be known as the Grey Cup presented by Shaw.

The 104th Grey Cup game was played at BMO Field in Toronto, which became the new home of the Argonauts beginning in the 2016 season. After being promised the 102nd Grey Cup game as an incentive to rejoin the league, the 105th Grey Cup game will be played at TD Place Stadium in Ottawa in 2017, as part of celebrations to mark 150 years of Confederation. The 55th Grey Cup, played at the end of 1967, was also held in Ottawa as part of celebrations to mark 100 years of Confederation.

Trophy

The trophy was commissioned in 1909 at a cost of $48. The chalice is made of sterling silver and stands 33 centimetres (13 in) tall. Its original base was made of wood, with silver shields listing each championship year and winning team's name, beginning with the University of Toronto Varsity Blues. The players of the 1915 championship Hamilton team, apparently as revenge for Toronto's refusal to relinquish the trophy in 1912 and 1913, added a shield for the 1908 Tigers team to give the appearance that their organization had won the first Grey Cup.

A 1947 fire destroyed the clubhouse of the Toronto Argonaut Rowing Club and damaged the Grey Cup. Many other trophies and artifacts in the clubhouse melted or were damaged beyond repair but the Grey Cup survived by catching onto a nail when the shelf upon which it sat collapsed. The trophy has been broken on six other occasions: in 1978, when it was dropped by celebrating Edmonton Eskimos players; in 1987, when an Eskimos' player sat on it; in 1993, when Edmonton's Blake Dermott head-butted it; in 2006, when the trophy broke away from its base as the BC Lions celebrated their victory; in 2012 when one of the handles broke off as the Toronto Argonauts celebrated; and finally in 2014 when trophy broke from its base again by the Calgary Stampeders after their win. The CFL commissioned a replica of the trophy in 2008.

The Grey Cup has been stolen on two occasions: it disappeared for three days in 1967 when it was taken from the Hamilton Tiger-Cats as a prank, and in December 1969 it was stolen from the offices of the Ottawa Rough Riders at Lansdowne Park. The thieves attempted to ransom the trophy, but the CFL refused to pay and made plans to replace it with a duplicate. An anonymous phone call led to the trophy's recovery two months later in a locker at Toronto's Royal York Hotel. The thieves were never found.

The current design of the Grey Cup's base was introduced in 1987. The base stands 84 centimetres (33 in) high and is made of black-lacquered aluminum with silver plates engraved with the names of each winning team's players and executives since 1909. The trophy, one of Canada's best known symbols, ran out of room for new additions following the 2012 Grey Cup. The league announced that the base will be redesigned but will remain similar in shape to its current design.

Similar to the more famous Stanley Cup, members of the winning teams are allowed time to celebrate with the trophy in their own fashion, often taking it to their home towns or tours in locations across Canada. The board of directors for the Canadian Football Hall of Fame act as the Grey Cup's trustees and control its rental for events. The trophy is accompanied by a designated representative of the Hall of Fame at all times. Like the Stanley Cup, but unlike the Vince Lombardi Trophy, a new trophy is not made every year.

Grey Cup festival

Each year, the host city organizes numerous events as part of the annual Grey Cup festival. Gala concerts, parties, and fan festivals are held in the days leading up to the championship game. The CFL hands out its annual awards during the festival, and an annual Grey Cup parade is held. Historically, the festival also featured the "Miss Grey Cup" beauty pageant. The game itself includes a halftime show, often featuring performances by well-known Canadian musical acts such as Nickelback, who performed at the 2011 game.

Nicknamed Canada's "Grand National Drunk", the Grey Cup party originated in the 1948 championship when hundreds of Calgary Stampeders fans descended on Toronto for their team's first appearance in the game. Bringing chuckwagons and horses, the fans organized a pancake breakfast â€" a staple of the Calgary Stampede â€" for bewildered Torontonians. According to historian Hugh Dempsey, "The Grey Cup was just another game until Calgary went down to Toronto with chuckwagons and everything and turned it into an event." The Stampeders won the game on the strength of the "sleeper play", a touchdown scored by Norm Hill after he hid himself from the Ottawa defence by lying down on the sidelines, as if asleep. He received the pass from quarterback Keith Spaith while still on his back. The victory completed the only undefeated season in the history of Canadian professional football. The boisterous celebrations that followed the win gave rise to the legend of Calgary alderman and future mayor Don Mackay riding his horse into the lobby of the Royal York Hotel. This event was repeated in the 2012 Grey Cup game in Toronto to much of the delight of the fans of both teams. The Calgary Grey Cup Committee maintains the tradition of organizing a pancake breakfast at each year's championship.

A 2012 survey found that Canadians consider the Grey Cup to be the most important annual event to attend. Fans of all teams converge at the game venue, including some who have attended 60 or more Grey Cups. The influx of people from across the country is estimated to have an economic impact of over $120 million for the region hosting the championship game.

Champions

The Toronto Argonauts have won the most Grey Cup championships (16), followed by the Edmonton Eskimos (14) and Winnipeg Blue Bombers (10). The Winnipeg Blue Bombers have made the most Grey Cup appearances (24). Since the Canadian Football League began in 1958, The Eskimos have won the most Grey Cup Championships (11) and have made the most Grey Cup appearances (19). The Saskatchewan Roughriders have the most losses in Grey Cup play (15), including five consecutive losses between 1928 and 1932. The defending champions are the Ottawa Redblacks, who won the 104th Grey Cup in 2016. Six teams in CFL history have won the Grey Cup at home, the 2013 Saskatchewan Roughriders, the 2012 Toronto Argonauts, the 2011 BC Lions, the 1994 BC Lions, the 1977 Montreal Alouettes, and 1972 Hamilton Tiger-Cats. The Blue Bombers were the losing team in 2011, extending Winnipeg's championship drought to 21 seasons, the longest active streak in the CFL.

Individually, three players have won seven Grey Cups: Jack Wedley (Toronto, Montreal Navy), Bill Stevenson (Edmonton) and Hank Ilesic (Edmonton, Toronto). Ilesic is one of seven players to appear in nine Grey Cup games. Among quarterbacks, Anthony Calvillo appeared in a record eight games, winning three. Five coaches share the record for Grey Cup championships at five: Wally Buono (the CFL's all-time leader in wins), Don Matthews, Frank Clair, Hugh Campbell and Lew Hayman.

Two individual awards are handed out following each game. The Most Valuable Player award is given to the top performer in the Grey Cup. Between 1974 and 1990, the league named both offensive and defensive most valuable players. Three people have been named MVP on three occasions: Doug Flutie, Damon Allen and Sonny Wade. The Dick Suderman Trophy is given to the most valuable Canadian. It is named in honour of Dick Suderman, who died of a brain hemorrhage in 1972 while an active player for the Edmonton Eskimos. Dave Sapunjis and Don Sweet have each won the award three times.

Host cities

The city of Toronto has hosted the most Grey Cup games with 47, including 30 of the first 45 games played. The first game was held on December 4, 1909, at Rosedale Field. Hamilton and Ottawa hosted several early games while Sarnia and Kingston each hosted one as the game's early years were dominated by teams in southern Ontario. The Grey Cup game and champion first left the province in 1931, when Montreal hosted the event and the Montreal AAA Winged Wheelers won the 19th Grey Cup. The game did not leave central Canada until 1955 when the 43rd Grey Cup was played in Vancouver. That contest achieved what was at the time an all-time Canadian football attendance record of 39,491. It was the first of 16 games hosted by the British Columbia city, second among all host cities.

Vancouver's attendance record stood until 1976, when 53,389 fans attended the 64th Grey Cup in Toronto. The four highest attended Grey Cup games have been held at the Olympic Stadium in Montreal, with an all-time record of 68,318 set in 1977. The 100th Grey Cup was hosted by Toronto in 2012.

Broadcasting

The Grey Cup game was first broadcast on radio in 1928. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) carried radio coverage of the game for 51 years until 1986, when a network of private broadcasters took over.

Canadian television was in its infancy in 1952 when Toronto's CBLT paid $7,500 for the rights to carry the first televised broadcast of a Grey Cup game. Within two years, it was estimated that 80 percent of the nation's 900,000 television sets were tuned into the game, even though the first national telecast did not occur until 1957. The Grey Cup continues to be one of Canada's most-viewed sporting events. The 1962 "Fog Bowl" game was the first Grey Cup to be broadcast on American television.

The CBC carried the first national telecasts exclusively, but the CTV Television Network purchased rights to the 1962 game. The move sparked concern across Canada as the newly formed network was not yet available in many parts of the country. The debate over whether an "event of national interest" should be broadcast by the publicly funded CBC or private broadcasters reached the floor of Parliament as members of the federal government weighed in. It was decided that both networks would carry the game. The two networks continued with the simulcast arrangement until 1986 when CTV ceased its coverage.

The CFL operated the Canadian Football Network, a coalition of private broadcasters that shared league games and the Grey Cup with the CBC, from 1987 to 1990. CBC then broadcast the championship game alone until 2007, when the CFL sold exclusive rights to all games, including the Grey Cup, to specialty channel The Sports Network (TSN) and its French-language sister station Réseau des sports (RDS), a deal that was criticized by Canadians without cable access. Nonetheless, TSN and RDS achieved a record audience for the 2009 Grey Cup, with 6.1 million Canadians watching the game in its entirety, and over 14 million viewing at least part of the contest. Viewership has declined in recent years, and in 2014, about 33%, of Canadians watched at least some of the game, peaking at 5.1 million viewers in the fourth quarter.

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The 2018 FIFA World Cup will be the 21st FIFA World Cup, a quadrennial international football tournament contested by the men's national teams of the member associations of FIFA. It is scheduled to take place in Russia from 14 June to 15 July 2018, after the country was awarded the hosting rights on 2 December 2010. This will be the first World Cup ever held in Eastern Europe, and the first held in Europe since 2006, all bar one of the stadium venues are in European Russia, West of the Ural Mountains to keep travel time manageable.

The final tournament will involve 32 national teams, which include 31 teams determined through qualifying competitions and the automatically qualified host team. A total of 64 matches will be played in 12 venues located in 11 cities. The final will take place on 15 July in Moscow at the Luzhniki Stadium.

The winners will qualify for the 2021 FIFA Confederations Cup.

Host selection

The bidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups began in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest. Initially, nine countries placed bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but Mexico later withdrew from proceedings, and Indonesia's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after the Indonesian government failed to submit a letter to support the bid. During the bidding process, the three remaining non-UEFA nations (Australia, Japan, and the United States) gradually withdrew from the 2018 bids, and the UEFA nations were thus ruled out of the 2022 bid. As such, there were eventually four bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup: England, Russia, Netherlands/Belgium, and Spain/Portugal.

The twenty-two-member FIFA Executive Committee convened in Zürich on 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments. Russia won the right to be the 2018 host in the second round of voting. The Spain/Portugal bid came second, and that from Belgium/Netherlands third. England's bid to host its second tournament fell at the first hurdle.

The voting results were as follows:

Branding

The tournament logo was unveiled on 28 October 2014 by cosmonauts at the International Space Station and then projected onto Moscow's Bolshoi Theatre during an evening television programme. Russian Sports Minister Vitaly Mutko said that the logo was inspired by "Russia's rich artistic tradition and its history of bold achievement and innovation", and FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that it reflected the "heart and soul" of the country. For the branding, a typeface called Dusha (from Ð"уша, Russian for soul) was created by Portuguese design agency Brandia Central in 2014.

Sponsorship

Qualification

Apart from Russia, who qualified automatically for the tournament as the hosts, all FIFA member associations were eligible to enter the qualification process.

Myanmar, having successfully appealed against a ban from the competition for crowd trouble during a 2014 World Cup qualifying tie against Oman, were obliged to play all their home matches outside the country. On 12 March 2015, prior to the start of qualification, Zimbabwe were expelled from the tournament for failing to pay former coach José Claudinei. Indonesia were suspended and then expelled before playing a single qualifying match, as part of punishment for government interference in the Football Association of Indonesia.

The qualifying draw took place at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg on 25 July 2015 at 18:00 local time (UTC+3). Qualifying matches for AFC and CONCACAF started in March 2015, prior to the qualifying draw.

The allocation of slots for each confederation was decided to be unchanged by the FIFA Executive Committee on 30 May 2015 in Zürich, after the FIFA Congress.

On 13 May 2016, Gibraltar and Kosovo became FIFA members and eligible for the World Cup qualifying.

Qualified teams

Proposal for expansion

In October 2013, UEFA President Michel Platini proposed that the World Cup finals should be expanded from 32 to 40 teams starting from 2018. The format would have been the same, but in groups of five instead of four. This was in response to FIFA President Sepp Blatter's comments that Africa and Asia deserved more spots in the World Cup finals at the expense of European and South American teams. However, FIFA general secretary Jérôme Valcke said that expansion in 2018 would be "unlikely", while Russian sports minister Vitaly Mutko said that the country was "preparing on the basis that 32 teams will be taking part."

Venues

Russia proposed the following host cities: Kaliningrad, Kazan, Krasnodar, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov-on-Don, Saint Petersburg, Samara, Saransk, Sochi, Volgograd, Yaroslavl, and Yekaterinburg. All the cities are in or just outside European Russia to reduce travel time for the teams in the huge country. The bid evaluation report stated: "The Russian bid proposes 13 host cities and 16 stadiums, thus exceeding FIFA's minimum requirement. Three of the 16 stadiums would be renovated, and 13 would be newly constructed."

In October 2011 Russia decreased the number of stadiums from 16 to 14. Construction of the proposed Podolsk stadium in the Moscow region was cancelled by the regional government, and also in the capital, Otkrytiye Arena was competing with Dynamo Stadium over which would be constructed first.

The final choice of host cities was announced on 29 September 2012. The number of cities was further reduced to 11 and number of stadiums to 12 as Krasnodar and Yaroslavl were dropped from the final list.

Sepp Blatter stated in July 2014 that due to concerns over the completion of venues in Russia, the number of venues for the tournament may be reduced from 12 to 10. He also said, "We are not going to be in a situation, as is the case of one, two or even three stadiums in South Africa, where it is a problem of what you do with these stadiums".

In October 2014, on their first official visit to Russia, FIFA's inspection committee and its head Chris Unger visited St Petersburg, Sochi, Kazan and both Moscow venues. They were satisfied with the progress.

On 8 October 2015, FIFA and the Local Organising Committee agreed on the official names of the stadiums used during the tournament.

Media related to Stadiums of FIFA World Cup 2018 at Wikimedia Commons

Schedule

The full schedule was announced by FIFA on 24 July 2015 (without kick-off times, which will be confirmed later). Russia will be placed in position A1 in the group stage and play in the opening match at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow on 14 June, which will also host the second semi-final on 11 July and the final on 15 July. The Krestovsky Stadium in Saint Petersburg will host the first semi-final on 10 July and the third place match on 14 July.

The draw will be held on 1 December 2017 at the State Kremlin Palace in Moscow.

Squads

Each team must first name a preliminary squad of 30 players. From the preliminary squad, the team must name a final squad of 23 players (three of whom must be goalkeepers) by the FIFA deadline. Players in the final squad may be replaced due to serious injury up to 24 hours prior to kickoff of the team's first match, where the replacement players do not need to be in the preliminary squad.

Group stage

The top two teams of each group advance to the round of 16. The rankings of teams in each group are determined as follows (regulations Article 32.5):

If two or more teams are equal on the basis of the above three criteria, their rankings are determined as follows:

All times listed are local time.

Group A

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Group B

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Group C

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Group D

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Group E

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Group F

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Group G

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Group H

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Knockout stage

In the knockout stages, if a match is level at the end of normal playing time, extra time is played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by a penalty shoot-out to determine the winner.

Round of 16

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Quarter-finals

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Semi-finals

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Third place play-off

Final

Controversies

As with the 2014 Winter Olympics, the choice of Russia as host has been challenged. Controversial issues have included the level of racism in Russian football, and discrimination against LGBT people in wider Russian society. Russia's involvement in the ongoing conflict in Ukraine has also caused calls by some US and UK politicians for the tournament to be moved, particularly following the annexation of Crimea. FIFA President Sepp Blatter said: "The World Cup has been given and voted to Russia and we are going forward with our work".

Allegations of corruption in the bidding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups caused threats from England's FA to boycott the tournament. FIFA appointed Michael J. Garcia, a US attorney, to investigate and produce a report (the Garcia Report) on the corruption allegations. Although the report was never published, FIFA released a 42-page summary of its findings as determined by German judge Hans-Joachim Eckert. Eckert's summary cleared Russia and Qatar of any wrongdoing, but was denounced by critics as a whitewash. Garcia criticised the summary as being "materially incomplete" with "erroneous representations of the facts and conclusions", and appealed to FIFA's Appeal Committee. The committee declined to hear his appeal, so Garcia resigned in protest of FIFA's conduct, citing a "lack of leadership" and lack of confidence in the independence of Eckert.

On 3 June 2015, the FBI confirmed that the federal authorities were investigating the bidding and awarding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. In an interview published on 7 June 2015, Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA's Audit And Compliance Committee, stated that "should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled".

Due to the financial crisis in the Russian economy, the budget for the preparations was cut a few times. In June 2015, a government decree cut the budget by $560 million, to a total of $11.8 billion.

Russian visa policy

The general visa policy of Russia will not apply to the World Cup participants and fans, who will be able to visit Russia without a visa right before and during the competition regardless of their citizenship.

Broadcasting rights

Mascot

The official FIFA World Cup mascot for the 2018 tournament, a wolf named "Zabivaka" (“the one who scores” in Russian), was unveiled on 21 October 2016. The mascot was chosen from a list of three finalists by voting, with the wolf receiving 53% of the votes, followed by the tiger (27%) and the cat (20%).

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Frozen yogurt (also spelled frozen yoghurt; also known as frogurt or by the tradename Froyo /ˈfroʊjoʊ/) is a frozen dessert made with yogurt and sometimes other dairy products. It is usually more tart than ice cream, as well as being lower in fat (due to the use of milk instead of cream). It is different from ice milk (more recently termed low-fat or light ice cream) and conventional soft serve. Unlike yogurt, frozen yogurt is not re gulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) but is regulated by some U.S. states. Frozen yogurt may or may not contain live and active bacteria cultures.

History

People have been eating plain yogurt for over four millennia, particularly in the Middle East and India. Yogurt was brought to the U.S. in the early 1900s and steadily increased in popularity as a health food item over the next several decades. In the 1930s Dannon began selling prepackaged yogurt for the first time in the U.S. By the 1970s, with the popularity of ice cream surging, freezing and production technology was transferred to the production of frozen yogurt. Many consumers, however, complained about the yogurt taste.

Capitalizing on consumer demand for a sweet product that tasted like ice cream but was healthier, TCBY opened its first store in 1981. Unlike previous pre-packaged versions introduced earlier, TCBY's yogurt was soft-serve dispensed at the point of sale through a machine. TCBY became the largest frozen yogurt franchise in the world at that time. As others saw the success of TCBY, frozen yogurt took off in the 1980s, reaching sales of $25 million in 1986. Brands such as Colombo, Nanci's, and Miss Karen's came to prominence around that time in the United States and frozen yogurt was 10% of the frozen dessert market accounting for over $300 million in sales by the mid 1990s. Demand for frozen yogurt slowed considerably in the late 1990s as Americans turned their attention to high-protein, high-fat diets. Low-fat foods such as frozen yogurt fell out of favor as food trends favored higher fat and lower cost ice cream at the turn of the millennium.

Trends changed back to frozen yogurt in the mid 2000s with the advent of live probiotic powder-based mixes invented by John Wudel, pioneer of alternative sweeteners in the frozen dessert industry. Dry base mix made frozen yogurt accessible in many countries outside the United States for the first time. In 2005, a small retail shop in California named Pinkberry introduced a new extra tart variety of soft-serve frozen yogurt to the market. In 2006, Yogurtland invented the first self-serve frozen yogurt concept when they opened their first shop in Fullerton, CA, giving guests a chance to create their own. This new euro tart flavor along with the opening of numerous other self-serve yogurt stores all over the western United States led to a resurgence of interest and demand for frozen yogurt all over the world. Self-serve pioneer Yogurtland, which now has more than 320 shops, features dairy-free, no sugar added and gluten-free frozen yogurt choices. The company also owns its dairy, all owing it to control the entire process to ensure a high quality product. Consumer demand for tart frozen yogurt reached unprecedented levels by 2013 all over the United States and many other countries marking a stark contrast to tart frozen yogurt's initial reception in the 1970s.

Production

Frozen yogurt usually consists of milk solids, some kind of sweetener, milk fat, yogurt culture (Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus are common cultures), natural or artificial flavorings, and sometimes natural or artificial coloring.

Milk fat comprises about 0.55â€"6% of the yogurt. Added in quantities inversely proportional to the amount of milk solids, the milk fat lends richness to the yogurt. Milk solids account for 8â€"14% of the yogurt's volume, providing lactose for sweetness and proteins for smoothness and increased resistance to melting. Cane or beet sugar provides 15â€"17% of the yogurt's ingredients. In addition to adding sweetness, the sugar increases the volume of solid ingredients in the yogurt, improving body and texture. Animal gelatin and/or vegetable additives (guar gum, carrageenan, etc.) stabilize the yogurt, reducing crystallization and increasing the temperature at which the yogurt will melt. This stabilization ensures that the frozen yogurt maintains a smooth consistency regardless of handling or temperature change.

Major companies often use assembly lines specifically dedicated to frozen yogurt production. The milk products and stabilizing agent(s) are combined and homogenized. At 32 °C, the yogurt culture is added. The mix remains at this temperature until it sets and is ready for cooling. After that, the mix is cooled at a temperature of 0 to 4 °C. Once it has reached the desired temperature and viscosity, the yogurt is allowed to sit in aging tanks for up to four hours. Sweeteners, flavorings, and colorings are then mixed in, and the yogurt mixture is cooled at a temperature of âˆ'6 to âˆ'2 °C. To create extra volume and smooth consistency, air is incorporated into the yogurt as the mixture is agitated. When a sufficient amount of air has been incorporated into the product, the yogurt is rapidly frozen to prevent the formation of large ice crystals, and stored in a cold place to be shipped.

Frozen yogurt can be made in a soft serve freezer in much the same way as soft ice cream. Frozen yogurt mix is sold in powder form that needs to be mixed with water or liquid form ready to pour into a soft serve machine. A mix with high fat or low fat content can be chosen, and the amount of air introduced into the soft serve frozen yogurt is variable. The higher the level of fat, the more air the yogurt can absorb; and the more air that is introduced into the mix as it freezes, the creamier the product will taste.

Uses

Frozen yogurt has come to be used much like ice cream, and is served in a wide variety of flavors and styles. Many companies allow customers the option of adding various toppings, from strawberries and banana to mini m&ms and Oreos, or of ordering their frozen yogurt in cups or in cones. Certain sellers offer sugar-free varieties. Frozen yogurt made by some chains is tarter and closer to the original recipe, whereas other firms focus on making their frozen yogurt taste like ice cream.

Other uses of term

In May 2010, Google released their operating system, Android 2.2, codenamed Froyo. Each major release of Android is named in alphabetical order after a dessert or sugary treat.

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Determining the correct bra size (also known as brassiere measurement or bust size) is the process manufacturers engage in to design and manufacture bras that correctly fit a majority of women, and for individual women, the process of identifying a correctly fitting bra. Bra sizes usually consist of one or more letters indicating the breast cup size and a number, indicating a band size around the woman's torso. Bra cup sizes were invented in 1932 and band sizes became popular in the 1940s.

The shape, size, position, symmetry, spacing, firmness, and amount of sagging of individual women's breasts vary considerably. Manufacturers' bra size labeling systems vary from country to country because no international standards exist. Even within a single country, one study found that the bra label size was consistently different from the measured size. As a result, about 25% of women have a difficult time finding a properly fitted bra. Some women choose to buy custom-made bras due to the unusual size or shape of their bust.

Measurement method origins

Parisienne Madeleine Gabeau received a United States patent on 21 November 1911 for a brassiere with soft cups and a metal band that supported and separated the breasts. To avoid the prevailing fashion that created a single "monobosom", her design provided "that the edges of the material d may be carried close along the inner and under contours of the breasts, so as to preserve their form, I employ an outlining band of metal b which is bent to conform to the lower curves of the breast."

Cup design origins

The term "cup" was not used to describe bras until 1916 when two patents were filed.

In October 1932, the S.H. Camp and Company were the first to measure cup size by the letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, and D, though the letters represented how pendulous the breasts were and not their volume. Camp's advertising in the February 1933 issue of Corset and Underwear Review featured letter-labeled profiles of breasts. Cup sizes A through D were not intended to be used for larger-breasted women.

In 1937, Warner introduced its Alphabet Bra with four cup sizes (A, B, C and D) to its product descriptions. Before long, these cup sizes got nicknames: egg cup, tea cup, coffee cup and challenge cup. Two other companies, Model and Fay-Miss (renamed in 1935 as the Bali Brassiere Company) followed, offering A, B, C and D cup sizes in the late 1930s. Catalog companies continued to use the designations Small, Medium and Large through the 1940s. Britain did not adopt the American cups in 1933, but resisted using cup sizes for its products until 1948. The Sears Company finally applied cup sizes to bras in its catalog in the 1950s.

Band measurement origins

Adjustable bands were introduced using multiple hook and eye closures in the 1930s. Prior to the widespread use of bras, the undergarment of choice for Western women was a corset. To help women meet the perceived ideal female body shape, corset and girdle manufacturers used a calculation called hip spring, the difference between waist and hip measurement (usually 10â€"12 inches).

The band measurement system was created by U.S. bra manufacturers just after World War II.

Other innovations

The underwire was first added to a strapless bra in 1937 by André, a custom-bra firm. Patents for underwire-type devices in bras were issued in 1931 and 1932, but were not widely adopted by manufacturers until after World War II when metal shortages eased.

In the 1930s, Dunlop chemists were able to reliably transform rubber latex into elastic thread. After 1940, "whirlpool," or concentric stitching was used to shape the cup structure of some designs. The man-made fibres were quickly adopted by the industry because of their easy-care properties. Since a brassiere must be laundered frequently, easy-care fabric was in great demand.

Consumer fitting

Pendulous breasts can make it difficult for a person to properly fit a bra. For best results, the breasts should be measured twice: once when standing upright, once bending over at the waist with the breasts hanging down. If the difference between these two measurements is more than 10 cm, then the average is chosen for calculating the cup size. A number of reports, surveys and studies in different countries have found that between 80% to 85% of women wear incorrectly fitted bras.

In November 2005, Oprah Winfrey produced a show devoted to bras and bra sizes, during which she talked about research that eight out of ten women wear the wrong size bra.

Larger breasts and bra fit

When purchasing bras, larger-breasted women usually have difficulty selecting a well-fitting bra. Buxom women are more likely than smaller-breasted women to wear an incorrectly sized bra. They tend to buy bras that are too small, while smaller-breasted women tend to purchase bras that are too large. Studies have revealed that the most common mistake made by women when selecting a bra was to choose too large a back band and too small a cup, for example, 38C instead of 34E, or 34B instead of 30D.

As breasts become larger, their shape and the distribution of tissue within them changes. The breasts may become ptotic. This makes measurements increasingly unreliable. The heavier a person's build, the more difficult it is to obtain accurate measurements, as measuring tape sinks into the flesh more easily.

In a study conducted in the United Kingdom of 103 women seeking mammoplasty, researchers found a strong link between obesity and inaccurate back measurement. They concluded that "obesity, breast hypertrophy, fashion and bra-fitting practices combine to make those women who most need supportive bras the least likely to get accurately fitted bras."

One issue that complicates finding a correctly fitting bra is that band and cup sizes are not standardized, but vary considerably from one manufacturer to another, resulting in sizes that only provide an approximate fit. Women cannot rely on labeled bra sizes to identify a bra that fits properly. Scientific studies show that the current system of bra sizing may be inaccurate.

Manufacturers cut their bras differently, so, for example, two 34B bras from two companies may not fit the same person. Customers should pay attention to which sizing system is used by the manufacturer. The main difference is in how cup sizes increase, by 2 cm or 1 inch (= 2.54 cm, see below). Some French manufacturers also increase cup sizes by 3 cm. Unlike dress sizes, manufacturers do not agree on a single standard.

British bras currently range from A to LL cup size (with Rigby&Peller recently introducing bras by Elila which go up to US-N-Cup), while most Americans can find bras with cup sizes ranging from A to G. Some brands (Goddess, Elila) go as high as N, a size roughly equal to a British JJ-Cup. In continental Europe, Milena Lingerie from Poland produces up to cup R. Larger sizes are usually harder to find in retail outlets. As the cup size increases, the labeled cup size of different manufacturers' bras tend to vary more widely in actual volume. One study found that the label size was consistently different from the measured size.

Even medical studies have attested to the difficulty of getting a correct fit. Research by plastic surgeons has suggested that bra size is imprecise because breast volume is not calculated accurately:

The current popular system of determining bra size is inaccurate so often as to be useless. Add to this the many different styles of bras and the lack of standardization between brands, and one can see why finding a comfortable, well-fitting bra is more a matter of educated guesswork, trial, and error than of precise measurements.

The use of the cup sizing and band measurement systems has evolved over time and continues to change. Experts recommend that women get fitted by an experienced person at a retailer offering the widest possible selection of bra sizes and brands.

Bad bra-fit symptoms

If the straps dig into the shoulder, leaving red marks or causing shoulder or neck pain, the bra band is not offering enough support. If breast tissue overflows the bottom of the bra, under the armpit, or over the top edge of the bra cup, the cup size is too small. Loose fabric in the bra cup indicates the cup size is too big. If the underwires poke the breast under the armpit or if the bra's center panel does not lie flat against the sternum, the cup size is too small. If the band rides up the torso at the back, the band size is too big. If it digs into the flesh, causing the flesh to spill over the edges of the band, the band is too small. If the band feels tight, this may be due to the cups being too small; instead of going up in band size a person should try going up in cup size. Similarly a band might feel too loose if the cup is too big. It is possible to test whether a bra band is too tight or too loose by reversing the bra on her torso so that the cups are at the back and then check for fit and comfort. Generally, if the wearer must continually adjust the bra or experiences general discomfort, the bra is a poor fit and she should get a new fitting.

Obtaining best fit

Bra experts recommend that women, especially those whose cup sizes are D or larger, get a professional bra fitting from the lingerie department of a clothing store or a specialty lingerie store. However, even professional bra fitters in different countries including New Zealand and the United Kingdom produce inconsistent measurements of the same person. There is significant heterogeneity in breast shape, density, and volume. As such, current methods of bra fitting may be insufficient for this range of chest morphology.

A 2004 study by Consumers Reports in New Zealand found that 80% of department store bra fittings resulted in a poor fit. However, because manufacturer's standards widely vary, women cannot rely on their own measurements to obtain a satisfactory fit. Some bra manufacturers and distributors state that trying on and learning to recognize a properly fitting bra is the best way to determine a correct bra size, much like shoes.

Bra fitters generally agree that a correctly fitting bra should meet the following criteria:

• When viewed from the side, the edge of the chest band should be horizontal, should not ride up the back, and should be firm but comfortable.
• Each cup's underwire at the front should lie flat against the sternum (not the breast), along the inframammary fold, and should not dig into the chest or the breasts, rub or poke out at the front.
• The breasts should be enclosed by the cups and there should be a smooth line where the fabric at the top of the cup ends.
• The apex of the breast, the nipple, must be in the center of the cup.
• The breast should not bulge over the top or out the sides of the cups, even with a low-cut style such as the balconette bra.
• The straps of a correctly fitted bra should not dig into or slip off the shoulder, which suggests a too-large band.
• The back of the bra should not ride up and the chest band should remain parallel to the floor when viewed from the back.
• The breasts should be supported primarily by the band around the rib cage, rather than by the shoulder straps.
• The woman should be able to breathe and move easily without the bra slipping around.

Confirming bra fit

One method to confirm that the bra is the best fit has been nicknamed the Swoop and Scoop. After identifying a well-fitting bra, the woman bends forward (the swoop), allowing their breasts to fall into the bra, filling the cup naturally, and then fastening the bra on the outermost set of hooks. When the woman stands up, she uses the opposite hand to place each breast gently into the cup (the scoop), and she then runs her index finger along the inside top edge of the bra cup to make sure her breast tissue does not spill over the edges.

Experts suggest that women choose a bra band that fits well on the outermost hooks. This allows the wearer to use the tighter hooks on the bra strap as it stretches during its lifetime of about eight months. The band should be tight enough to support the bust, but the straps should not provide the primary support.

Bra size calculator

There are many online bra size calculator tools, mostly you will find on lingerie website. But one major bra size problem is that it varies according to brand. So even if you know the bra size of some particular brand, you should get yourself measured if you're buying bra from some other brand.

Consumer measurement difficulties

A bra is one of the most complicated articles of clothing to make. A typical bra design has between 20 and 48 parts, including the band, hooks, cups, lining, and straps. Major retailers place orders from manufacturers in batches of 10,000. Orders of this size require a large-scale operation to manage the cutting, sewing and packing required.

Constructing a properly fitting brassiere is difficult. Adelle Kirk, formerly a manager at the global Kurt Salmon management consulting firm that specializes in the apparel and retail businesses, said that making bras is complex:

Bras are one of the most complex pieces of apparel. There are lots of different styles, and each style has a dozen different sizes, and within that there are a lot of colors. Furthermore, there is a lot of product engineering. You've got hooks, you've got straps, there are usually two parts to every cup, and each requires a heavy amount of sewing. It is very component intensive.

Asymmetrical breasts common

Obtaining the correct size is complicated by the fact that up to 25% of women's breasts display a persistent, visible breast asymmetry, which is defined as differing in size by at least one cup size. For about 5% to 10% of women, their breasts are severely different, with the left breast being larger in 62% of cases. Minor asymmetry may be resolved by wearing a padded bra, but in severe cases of developmental breast deformityâ€"commonly called "Amazon's Syndrome" by physicians, may require corrective surgery due to morphological alterations caused by variations in shape, volume, position of the breasts relative to the inframammary fold, the position of the nipple-areola complex on the chest, or both.

Breast volume variation

Obtaining the correct size is further complicated by the fact that the size and shape of women's breasts change, if they experience menstrual cycles, during the cycle and can experience unusual or unexpectedly rapid growth in size due to pregnancy, weight gain or loss, or medical conditions. Even breathing can substantially alter the measurements.

Some women's breasts can change shape by as much as 20% per month:

"Breasts change shape quite consistently on a month-to-month basis, but they will individually change their volume by a different amount ... Some girls will change less than 10% and other girls can change by as much as 20%." Would it be better not to wear a bra at all then? "... In fact there are very few advantages in wearing existing bras. Having a bra that's generally supportive would have significant improvement particularly in terms of stopping them going south ... The skin is what gives the breasts their support"

Increasing breast size

In 2010, the most common bra size sold in the UK was 36D. In 2004, market research company Mintel reported that bust sizes in the United Kingdom had increased from 1998 to 2004 in younger as well as older consumers and that the shift was not limited to overweight women, while a more recent study showed that the most often sold bra size in the US in 2008 was 36D.

Researchers also said more women wear the correctâ€"biggerâ€"size now, spurred on by shows like BBC 1's What Not To Wear and Channel 4's How To Look Good Naked.

Consumer measurement methods

Bra retailers recommend several methods for measuring band and cup size. These are based on two primary methods, either under the bust or over the bust, and sometimes both. Calculating the correct bra band size is complicated by a variety of factors. The American National Standards Institute states that while a voluntary consensus of sizes exists, there is much confusion to the ‘true’ size of clothing. As a result, bra measurement can be considered an art and a science. Online shopping and in-person bra shopping experiences may differ because online recommendations are based on averages and in-person shopping can be completely personalized so the shopper may easily try on band sizes above and below her between measured band size. For the woman with a large cup size and a between band size, they may find their cup size is not available in local stores so may have to shop online where most large cup sizes are readily available on certain sites. Others recommend rounding to the n earest whole number.

Band measurement methods

There are several possible methods for measuring the bust.

Underbust +0

A measuring tape is pulled around the torso at the inframammary fold. The tape is then pulled tight while remaining horizontal and parallel to the floor. The measurement in inches is then rounded to the nearest even number for the band size.

Underbust +4

This method begins the same way as the underbust +0 method, where a measuring tape is pulled tight around the torso under the bust while remaining horizontal. If the measurement is even, 4 is added to calculate the band size. If it is odd, 5 is added. Kohl’s uses this method for its online fitting guide.

Sizing chart

Currently, many large U.S. department stores determine band size by starting with the measurement taken underneath the bust similar to the aforementioned underbust +0 and underbust +4 methods. A sizing chart or calculator then uses this measurement to determine the band size. Band sizes calculated using this method vary between manufacturers, although the band sizes generally lie in between band sizes that would result from the underbust +0 method and underbust+4 method.

Above the breasts

Victoria's Secret uses this method, where a measuring tape is pulled around the torso under the armpit and above the bust. Because band sizes are most commonly manufactured in even numbers, the wearer must round to the closest even number.

Cup measurement methods

Bra-wearers can calculate their cup size by finding the difference between their bust size and their band size. The bust size, bust line measure, or over-bust measure is the measurement around the torso over the fullest part of the breasts, with the crest of the breast halfway between the elbow and shoulder, usually over the nipples, ideally while standing straight with arms to the side and wearing a properly fitted bra. This practice assumes the current bra fits correctly. The measurements are made in the same units as the band size, either inches or centimetres. The cup size is calculated by subtracting the band size from the over-the-bust measurement.

Cup sizes vary

Cup sizes vary from one country to another. The larger the cup size, the bigger the variation.

Surveys of bra sizes tend to be very dependent on the population studied and how it was obtained. For instance, one U.S. study reported that the most common size was 34B, followed by 34C, that 63% were size 34 and 39% cup size B. However, the survey sample was drawn from 103 Caucasian student volunteers at a Midwest U.S. university aged 18â€"25, and excluded pregnant and nursing women.

Bra maker Triumph conducted a survey in 2007 to determine the percentage of women wearing four cup sizes, and found that 57% of British women, more than any other country, need a D cup.

Measuring cup size without a bra

Bra-wearers who have difficulty calculating a correct cup size may be able to find a correct fit using a method adopted by plastic surgeons. Using a flexible tape measure, position the tape at the outside of the chest, under the arm, where the breast tissue begins. Measure across the fullest part of the breast, usually across the nipple, to where the breast tissue stops at the breast bone. This measuring approach assumes that the breasts are not so large or pendulous that they sag significantly, making measuring across the fullness of the breast impractical. Only women whose breasts are firm and spherical can measure without a bra.

Conversion of the measurement to cup size is as follows:

These cup measurements are only correct for a 34-inch band because cup size is relative to band size. The volume of a brassiere cup is the same for 30D, 32C, 34B, and 36A, though the shape of each cup may be different. These related bra sizes of the same cup volume are called sister sizes. It is sometimes possible that two adjacent sister sizes will both fit a person, since the cup volume is the same, while the band size can be adjusted to a small degree by using the hook and eye fasteners in the bra clasp.

Consumer fit research

A 2012 study by White and Scurr University of Portsmouth compared method that adds 4 to the band size over-the-bust method used in many United Kingdom lingerie shops with and compared that to measurements obtained using a professional method. The study relied on the professional bra-fitting method described by McGhee and Steele (2010).

The study utilized a five-step approach to obtain the best fitting bra size for an individual. The study measured 45 women using the traditional selection method that adds 4 to the band size over-the-bust method. Women tried bras on until they obtained the best fit based on professional bra fitting criteria. The researchers found that 76% of women overestimated their band and 84% underestimated their cup size. When women wear bras with too big a band, breast support is reduced. Too small a cup size may cause skin irritation. They noted that "ill-fitting bras and insufficient breast support can lead to the development of musculoskeletal pain and inhibit women participating in physical activity." The study recommended that women should be educated about the criteria for finding a well-fitting bra. They recommended that women measure under their bust to determine their band size rather than the traditional over the bust measurement method.

Manufacturer design standards

Bra-labeling systems used around the world are at times misleading and confusing. Cup and band sizes vary around the world. In countries that have adopted the European EN 13402 dress-size standard, the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Bra-fitting experts in the United Kingdom state that many women who buy off the rack without professional assistance wear up to two sizes too small.

Manufacturer Fruit of the Loom attempted to solve the problem of finding a well-fitting bra for asymmetrical breasts by introducing Pick Your Perfect Bra, which allow women to choose a bra with two different cup sizes, although it is only available in A through D cup sizes.

There are several sizing systems in different countries. Most use the chest circumferences measurement system and lettered cup sizes, but there are some significant differences. Many bras available come in only 36 sizes.

UK

The UK uses the inch-system, this means that the difference in chest circumference between the cup sizes is always one inch, or 2.54 cm. The difference between 2 band sizes is 2 inches or 5.08 cm.

Leading brands and manufacturers including Panache, Bestform, Gossard, Freya, Curvy Kate, Bravissimo and Fantasie, which use the British standard band sizes 28-30-32-34-36-38-40-42-44, and so on. Cup sizes are designated by AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-FF-G-GG-H-HH-J-JJ-K-KK-L.

However, some clothing retailers and mail order companies have their own house brands and use a custom sizing system. Marks and Spencers uses AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-G-GG-H-J, leaving out FF and HH. As a result, their J-Cup is equal to a British standard H-cup. Evans and ASDA sell bras (ASDA as part of their George clothing range) whose sizing runs A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-G-H. Their H-Cup is roughly equal to a British standard G-cup.

Some retailers reserve AA for young teens, and use AAA for ladies.

Australia/New Zealand

Australia and New Zealand use a permutation of the British system. Cup sizes are the same, but Australia's bra band measurement system is based on dress sizing charts. However, dress sizes and cuts are calculated for B and C cups only, so basing the choice of band size upon dress size is not an accurate way to get the bra size. Depending upon a person's build, a size 16 may wear a 16 C (UK 40 C), a 14 DD, 12 F or a 10 G (UK 34 G) underneath their clothes, because all bra sizes are made for the same chest circumference of approx. 40 inches.

United States and Canada

Bra-sizing in the United States and Canada is very similar to the United Kingdom. Band sizes use the same designation in inches and the cups also increase by 1-inch-steps. However, some manufacturers use conflicting sizing methods. Some label bras beyond a C cup as D-DD-DDD-DDDD-E-EE-EEE-EEEE-F…, some use the variation: D1, D2, D3, D4, D5..... but many use the following system: A, B, C, D, DD, DDD, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O. and others label them like the British system D-DD-E-F-FF… Comparing the larger cup sizes between different manufacturers can be difficult.

In 2013, underwear maker Jockey International offered a new way to measure bra and cup size. It introduced a system with ten cup sizes per band size that are numbered and not lettered, designated as 1-36, 2-36 etc. The company developed the system over eight years, during which they scanned and measured the breasts and torsos of 800 women. Researchers also tracked the women's use of their bras at home. To implement the system, women must purchase a set of plastic cups from the company to find their Jockey cup size. Some analysts were critical of the requirement to buy the measurement kit, since women must pay about USD$20 to adopt Jockey's proprietary system, in addition to the cost of the bras themselves.

Continental Europe

In Continental Europe the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Band sizes run 65-70-75-80…, increasing in steps of 5 cm, similar to the English double inch. A person with a loosely measured underbust circumference of 78â€"82 cm should wear a band size 80.

The cup labels begin with "AA" for an 11±1 cm difference between bust and underbust circumference, i.e. not between bust circumference and band size as in the English systems. They increase in steps of 2 cm, instead of 2.5 cm or 1-inch, and except for the initial cup size letters are neither doubled nor skipped. In very large cup sizes this causes smaller cups than their English counterparts.

This system has been standardized in the European dress size standard EN 13402 introduced in 2006, but was in use in many European countries before that date.

South Korea/Japan

In South Korea and Japan the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Band sizes run 65-70-75-80…, increasing in steps of 5 cm, similar to the English double inch. A person with a loosely measured underbust circumference of 78â€"82 cm should wear a band size 80.

The cup labels begin with "AAA" for an 5±1.25 cm difference between bust and underbust circumference, i.e. similar bust circumference and band size as in the English systems. They increase in steps of 2.5 cm, and except for the initial cup size letters are neither doubled nor skipped.

Japanese sizes are the same as Korean ones, but the cup labels begin with "AA" for a 7.5±1.25 cm difference and usually precedes the bust designation, i.e. "B75" instead of "75B".

This system has been standardized in the Korea dress size standard KS K9404 introduced in 1999 and in Japan dress size standard JIS L4006 introduced in 1998.

France/Belgium/Spain

The French and Spanish system is a permutation of the Continental European sizing system. While cup sizes are the same, band sizes are exactly 15 cm larger than the European band size.

Italy

The Italian band size uses small consecutive integers instead of the underbust circumference rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Since it starts with size 0 for European size 60, the conversion consists of a division by 5 and then a subtraction of 12. The size designations are often given in Roman numerals.

Cup sizes have traditionally used a step size of 2.5 cm, which is close to the English inch of 2.54 cm, and featured some double letters for large cups, but in recent years some Italian manufacturers have switched over to the European 2-cm system.

Here is a conversion table for bra sizes in Italy with respect other countries:

Advertising and retail influence

Manufacturers' marketing and advertising often appeals to fashion and image over fit, comfort, and function. Since about 1994, manufacturers have re-focused their advertising, moving from advertising functional brassieres that emphasize support and foundation, to selling lingerie that emphasize fashion while sacrificing basic fit and function, like linings under scratchy lace.

Women with larger breasts (cup size greater than D) can have a difficult time finding a correctly sized bra because many stores do not offer a sufficient range of bras in greater sizes. Many salespeople are not trained in how to properly fit a bra, and when the customer can not find what they want, will sell the customer the next largest or smallest size. Some salespeople measure customers over their shirt and bra, adding errors to every measurement. Elisabeth Squires, an author of a breast-health and bra guide, says "Most really good fitters will tell you this is an art, not a science."

Research

English mechanical engineer and professor John Tyrer from Loughborough University tackled the problem of bra design after his wife returned disheartened from a shopping trip when she could not find anything to suit her needs. On assignment from the British government, he uncovered that 80% of women wear the wrong size of bra. He reported that women are measuring their chest diameter and maximum breast diameter rather than their breast volume, especially when the body is in motion. According to Tyrer, "to get the most supportive and fitted bra it's infinitely better if you know the volume of the breast and the size of the back.". He says the A, B, C, D cup measurement system is flawed. "It's like measuring a motor car by the diameter of the gas cap." "The whole design is fundamentally flawed. It's an instrument of torture." Tyrer has developed a bra design with crossed straps in the back. These use the weight of one breast to lift the other using counterbalance. Standa rd designs constrict chest movement during breathing. One of the tools used in the development of Tyrer's design has been a projective differential shape body analyzer for 40,000 GBP.

Contrary to popular belief, breasts weigh up to ~1 kg and not ~0.2 .. 0.3 kg. Tyrer said, "By measuring the diameter of the chest and breasts current measurements are supposed to tell you something about the size and volume of each breast, but in fact it doesn't". Bra companies remain reluctant to manufacture Tyrer's prototype, which is a front closing bra with more vertical orientation and adjustable cups.

Calculating cup volume and breast weight

The average breast weighs about 0.5 kilograms (1.1 lb). Each breast contributes to about 4â€"5% of the body fat. The density of fatty tissue is more or less equal to 0.9 kg/l for all women.

If a cup is a hemisphere, its volume V is given by the following formula:

where r is the radius of the cup, and D is its diameter.

If the cup is an hemi-ellipsoid, its volume is given by the formula :

where a, b and c are the three semi-axes of the hemi-ellipsoid, and cw cd and wl are respectively the cup width, the cup depth and the length of the wire.

Cups give a hemi-spherical shape to breasts and underwires give shape to cups. So the curvature radius of the underwire is the key parameter to determine volume and weight of the breast. The same underwires are used for the cups of sizes 36A, 34B, 32C, 30D etc. ... so those cups have the same volume. The reference numbers of underwire sizes are based on a B cup bra, for example underwire size 32 is for 32B cup (and 34A, 30C...). An underwire size 30 width has a curvature diameter of 3-inch 5/6 ≈ 9.7 cm and this diameter increases by â…" inch ≈ 0.847 cm by size. The table below shows volume calculations for some cups that can be found in a ready-to-wear large size shop.

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Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug. Unlike many other psychoactive substances, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all parts of the world. There are several known mechanisms of action to explain the effects of caffeine. The most prominent is that it reversibly blocks the action of adenosine on its receptor and consequently prevents the onset of drowsiness induced by adenosine. Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the autonomic nervous system.

Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline purine, a methylxanthine alkaloid, and is chemically related to the adenine and guanine bases of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). It is found in the seeds, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants native to South America and East Asia and helps to protect them against predator insects and prevent germination of nearby seeds. The most well known source of caffeine is the coffee bean, a misnomer for the seed of Coffea plants. Beverages containing caffeine are ingested to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve performance. To make these drinks, caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water, a process called infusion. Caffeine-containing drinks, such as coffee, tea, and cola, are very popular; in 2005, 90% of North American adults consumed caffeine daily.

Caffeine can have both positive and negative health effects. It can treat and prevent the premature infant breathing disorders bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity and apnea of prematurity. Caffeine citrate is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines. It may confer a modest protective effect against some diseases, including Parkinson's disease and certain types of cancer. One meta-analysis concluded that cardiovascular disease such as coronary artery disease and stroke is less likely with 3â€"5 cups of non-decaffeinated coffee per day but more likely with over 5 cups per day. Some people experience insomnia or sleep disruption if they consume caffeine, especially during the evening hours, but others show little disturbance. Evidence of a risk during pregnancy is equivocal; some authorities recommend that pregnant women limit consumption to the equivalent of two cups of coffee per day or less. Caffeine can produce a mild form of drug dependence â€" associated with withdra wal symptoms such as sleepiness, headache, and irritability â€" when an individual stops using caffeine after repeated daily intake. Tolerance to the autonomic effects of increased blood pressure and heart rate, and increased urine output, develops with chronic use (i.e., these symptoms become less pronounced or do not occur following consistent use).

Caffeine is classified by the Food and Drug Administration as "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS). Toxic doses, over 10 grams per day for an adult, are much higher than typical doses of under 500 milligrams per day. A cup of coffee contains 80â€"175 mg of caffeine, depending on what "bean" (seed) is used and how it is prepared (e.g. drip, percolation, or espresso). Thus it requires roughly 50â€"100 ordinary cups of coffee to reach a lethal dose. However pure powdered caffeine, which is available as a dietary supplement, can be lethal in tablespoon-sized amounts.

Use

Medical

Caffeine is used in:

• Bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature infants for both prevention and treatment. It may improve weight gain during therapy and reduce the incidence of cerebral palsy as well as reduce language and cognitive delay. On the other hand, subtle long-term side effects are possible.
• Apnea of prematurity as a primary treatment, but not prevention.
• Orthostatic hypotension treatment.

Enhancing performance

Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant and is used to reduce physical fatigue and to prevent or treat drowsiness. It produces increased wakefulness, increased focus, and better general body coordination. The amount of caffeine needed to produce these effects varies from person to person, depending on body size and degree of tolerance. Desired effects begin approximately one hour after consumption, and a moderate dose usually subsides in about three or four hours. Caffeine can delay or prevent sleep, and improves task performance during sleep deprivation. Shift workers have fewer mistakes caused by drowsiness. At normal doses, caffeine has variable effects on learning and memory, but it generally improves reaction time, arousal, and concentration. A 2014 systematic review and meta-analysis found that concurrent caffeine and L-theanine use has synergistic psychoactive effects that promote alertness, attention, and task switching; these effects are m ost pronounced during the first hour post-dose.

Both caffeine and coffee are proven ergogenic aids in humans. Caffeine improves athletic performance in aerobic (especially endurance sports) and anaerobic conditions. Moderate doses of caffeine (around 5 mg/kg) can improve sprint performance, cycling and running time trial performance, endurance (i.e., it delays the onset of muscle fatigue and central fatigue), and cycling power output.

Specific populations

Adolescents and adults

Health Canada has not developed advice for adolescents because of insufficient data. Nonetheless, they suggest that daily caffeine intake for this age group be no more than 2.5 mg/kg body weight. This is because the maximum adult caffeine dose may not be appropriate for light weight adolescents or for younger adolescents who are still growing. The daily dose of 2.5 mg/kg body weight would not cause adverse health effects in the majority of adolescent caffeine consumers. This is a conservative suggestion since older and heavier weight adolescents may be able to consume adult doses of caffeine without suffering adverse effects. For the rest of the general population of healthy adults, Health Canada advises a daily intake of no more than 400 mg.

Children

In healthy children, caffeine intake produces effects that are "modest and typically innocuous". For children age 12 and under, Health Canada recommends a maximum daily caffeine intake of no more than 2.5 milligrams per kilogram of body weight. Based on average body weights of children, this translates to the following age-based intake limits:

Side effects

Physical

Caffeine can increase blood pressure and cause vasoconstriction. Long-term consumption at sufficiently high doses has been associated with chronic arterial stiffness. Coffee and caffeine can affect gastrointestinal motility and gastric acid secretion.

Caffeine increases basal metabolic rate in adults. In postmenopausal women, high caffeine consumption can accelerate bone loss.

Doses of caffeine equivalent to the amount normally found in standard servings of tea, coffee and carbonated soft drinks appear to have no diuretic action. However, acute ingestion of caffeine in large doses (at least 250â€"300 mg, equivalent to the amount found in 2â€"3 cups of coffee or 5â€"8 cups of tea) results in a short-term stimulation of urine output in individuals who have been deprived of caffeine for a period of days or weeks. This increase is due to both a diuresis (increase in water excretion) and a natriuresis (increase in saline excretion); it is mediated via proximal tubular adenosine receptor blockade. The acute increase in urinary output may increase the risk of dehydration. However, chronic users of caffeine develop a tolerance to this effect, and experience no increase in urinary output.

Caffeine in low doses may cause weak bronchodilation for up to four hours in asthmatics.

Psychological

Minor undesired symptoms from caffeine ingestion not sufficiently severe to warrant a psychiatric diagnosis are common, and include mild anxiety, jitteriness, insomnia, increased sleep latency, and reduced coordination. Caffeine can have negative effects on anxiety disorders. According to a 2011 literature review, caffeine use is positively associated with anxiety and panic disorders. At high doses, typically greater than 300 mg, caffeine can both cause and worsen anxiety. For some people, discontinuing caffeine use can significantly reduce anxiety.

Low doses of caffeine cause increased alertness and decreased fatigue. In moderate doses, caffeine may reduce symptoms of depression and lower suicide risk.

During pregnancy

Caffeine consumption during pregnancy does not appear to increase the risk of congenital malformations, miscarriage or growth retardation even when consumed in moderate to high amounts. However, as the data supporting this conclusion is of poor quality, some suggest limiting caffeine consumption during pregnancy. The UK Food Standards Agency has recommended that pregnant women should limit their caffeine intake, out of prudence, to less than 200 mg of caffeine a day â€" the equivalent of two cups of instant coffee, or one and a half to two cups of fresh coffee. The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) concluded in 2010 that caffeine consumption is safe up to 200 mg per day in pregnant women. Although the evidence that caffeine may be harmful during pregnancy is equivocal, there is some evidence that the hormonal changes during pregnancy slow the metabolic clearance of caffeine from the system, causing a given dose to have longer-lasting effects (as long a s 15 hours in the third trimester). There is also some evidence that caffeine intake by pregnant women is associated with a higher risk of giving birth to a low birth weight baby.

Caffeine's potential impact on female fertility, and its precise impact on pregnancy, is still being studied, but (as with many other substances in these circumstances) caution and moderation is warranted in any case until further information is known. For women of childbearing age, Health Canada recommends a maximum daily caffeine intake of no more than 300 mg, or a little over two 8 oz (237 mL) cups of coffee.

Reinforcement disorders

Addiction

Whether or not caffeine can result in an addictive disorder depends on how addiction is defined. Some diagnostic models, such as the ICDM-9 and ICD-10, include a classification of caffeine addiction under a broader diagnostic model. Some state that certain users can become addicted and therefore unable to decrease use even though they know there are negative health effects.

Caffeine does not appear to be a reinforcing stimulus, and some degree of aversion may actually occur, with people preferring placebo over caffeine in a study on drug abuse liability published in an NIDA research monograph.

Some state that research does not provide support for an underlying biochemical mechanism for caffeine addiction. Other research states it can affect the reward system.

"Caffeine addiction" was added to the ICDM-9 and ICD-10. However, its addition was contested with claims that this diagnostic model of caffeine addiction is not supported by evidence. The American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5 does not include the diagnosis of a caffeine addiction but proposes criteria for the disorder for more study.

Dependence and withdrawal

Withdrawal can cause mild to clinically significant distress or impairment in daily functioning. The frequency at which this occurs is self reported at 11%, but in lab tests only half of the people who report withdrawal actually experience it, casting doubt on many claims of dependence. Mild to increasingly severe physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms may occur upon abstinence, with greater than 100 mg caffeine per day; some symptoms associated with psychological dependence may also occur during withdrawal. Caffeine dependence can involve withdrawal symptoms such as fatigue, headache, irritability, depressed mood, reduced contentedness, inability to concentrate, sleepiness or drowsiness, stomach pain, and joint pain. Withdrawal headaches are experienced by roughly half of those who stop consuming caffeine for two days following an average daily intake of 235 mg.

The ICD-10 includes a diagnostic model for caffeine dependence, but the DSM-5 does not. The APA, which published the DSM-5, acknowledged that there was sufficient evidence in order to create a diagnostic model of caffeine dependence for the DSM-5, but they noted that the clinical significance of this disorder is unclear. The DSM-5 instead lists "caffeine use disorder" in the emerging models section of the manual.

Tolerance varies for daily, regular caffeine users and high caffeine users. High doses of caffeine (750 to 1200 mg/day spread throughout the day) have been shown to produce complete tolerance to some, but not all of the effects of caffeine. Doses as low as 100 mg/day, such as a 6 oz. cup of coffee or two to three 12 oz. servings of caffeinated soft-drink, may continue to cause sleep disruption, among other intolerances. Non-regular caffeine users have the least caffeine tolerance for sleep disruption. Some coffee drinkers develop tolerance to its undesired sleep-disrupting effects, but others apparently do not.

Effect of genetics on withdrawal symptoms

Gene polymorphism could be associated with caffeine withdrawal symptoms and beta-1 and beta-2 play roles in caffeine withdrawal. For example, compared to people with homozygous Gly16 allele, people with the heterozygote ADR beta-2 Gly16 Arg gene polymorphism have a higher chance of feeling fatigue after 48 hours of caffeine withdrawal. It has been suspected that beta2- adrenoceptors are the main cause for this increase in mental fatigue symptoms. Beta 2- adrenoceptors are receptors that regulate glycogenolysis, secret insulin and intramuscularly transport glucose that is used for cerebral and muscle activity. Another example is given by the genes ADRbeta1 Gly16 Arg and CYP1A2-163A>C polymorphisms. They are associated with peoples' mood swings and increased depression level. Among subjects homozygous for the CYP1A2 allele, ADRbeta1 Gly389 allele carriers are reported to have a higher percentage of depression level increase when compared to Arg389 homozygotes subjects. Adrenergi c receptors, again, play a key role in this symptom, as altered norepinephrine (an adrenoceptor agonist) neurotransmission contribute to the etiology of depression. This symptom is often seen in faster caffeine metabolizers, because caffeine effects diminish quicker in these people and provide them less opportunity to adapt to caffeine loss.

Risk of other diseases

Coffee consumption is associated with a lower overall risk of cancer. This is primarily due to a decrease in the risks of hepatocellular and endometrial cancer, but it may also have a modest effect on colorectal cancer. There does not appear to be a significant protective effect against other types of cancers, and heavy coffee consumption may increase the risk of bladder cancer. A protective effect of caffeine against Alzheimer's disease is possible, but the evidence is inconclusive. Moderate coffee consumption may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease, and it may somewhat reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. Drinking four or more cups of coffee per day does not affect the risk of hypertension compared to drinking little or no coffee. However those who drink 1â€"3 cups per day may be at a slightly increased risk. Caffeine increases intraocular pressure in those with glaucoma but does not appear to affect normal individuals. It may protect people from liver cirrhosis. There is no evidence that coffee stunts a child's growth. Caffeine may increase the effectiveness of some medications including ones used to treat headaches. Caffeine may lessen the severity of acute mountain sickness if taken a few hours prior to attaining a high altitude.

Overdose

Consumption of 1â€"1.5 grams per day is associated with a condition known as caffeinism. Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and palpitations after caffeine use.

Caffeine overdose can result in a state of central nervous system over-stimulation called caffeine intoxication (DSM-IV 305.90). This syndrome typically occurs only after ingestion of large amounts of caffeine, well over the amounts found in typical caffeinated beverages and caffeine tablets (e.g., more than 400â€"500 mg at a time). The symptoms of caffeine intoxication are comparable to the symptoms of overdoses of other stimulants: they may include restlessness, fidgeting, anxiety, excitement, insomnia, flushing of the face, increased urination, gastrointestinal disturbance, muscle twitching, a rambling flow of thought and speech, irritability, irregular or rapid heart beat, and psychomotor agitation. In cases of much larger overdoses, mania, depression, lapses in judgment, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, hallucinations, or psychosis may occur, and rhabdomyolysis (breakdown of skeletal muscle tissue) can be provoked.

Massive overdose can result in death. The LD₅₀ of caffeine in humans is dependent on individual sensitivity, but is estimated to be 150 to 200 milligrams per kilogram of body mass (75â€"100 cups of coffee for a 70 kilogram adult). A number of fatalities have been caused by overdoses of readily available powdered caffeine supplements, for which the estimated lethal amount is less than a tablespoon. The lethal dose is lower in individuals whose ability to metabolize caffeine is impaired due to genetics or chronic liver disease A death was reported in a man with liver cirrhosis who overdosed on caffeinated mints.

Treatment of mild caffeine intoxication is directed toward symptom relief; severe intoxication may require peritoneal dialysis, hemodialysis, or hemofiltration.

Interactions

Alcohol

According to DSST, alcohol provides a reduction in performance and caffeine has a significant improvement in performance. When alcohol and caffeine are consumed jointly, the effects produced by caffeine are affected, but the alcohol effects remain the same. For example, when additional caffeine is added, the drug effect produced by alcohol is not reduced. However, the jitteriness and alertness given by caffeine is decreased when additional alcohol is consumed. Alcohol consumption alone reduces both inhibitory and activational aspects of behavioral control. Caffeine antagonizes the activational aspect of behavioral control, but has no effect on the inhibitory behavioral control.

Tobacco

Smoking tobacco increases caffeine clearance by 56%.

Oral birth control

Consumption of caffeine while orally administering birth control can extend the half-life of caffeine; therefore, greater attention should be taken during caffeine consumption.

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

In the absence of caffeine and when a person is awake and alert, little adenosine is present in (CNS) neurons. With a continued wakeful state, over time it accumulates in the neuronal synapse, in turn binding to and activating adenosine receptors found on certain CNS neurons; when activated, these receptors produce a cellular response that ultimately increases drowsiness. When caffeine is consumed, it antagonizes adenosine receptors; in other words, caffeine prevents adenosine from activating the receptor by blocking the location on the receptor where adenosine binds to it. As a result, caffeine temporarily prevents or relieves drowsiness, and thus maintains or restores alertness.

Receptor and ion channel targets

Caffeine is a receptor antagonist at all adenosine receptor subtypes (A₁, A_2A, A_2B, and A₃ receptors). Antagonism at these receptors stimulates the medullary vagal, vasomotor, and respiratory centers, which increases respiratory rate, reduces heartrate, and constricts blood vessels. Adenosine receptor antagonism also promotes neurotransmitter release (e.g., monoamines and acetylcholine), which endows caffeine with its stimulant effects; adenosine acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter that suppresses activity in the central nervous system. Heart palpitations are caused by blockade of the adenosine A1 receptor.

Because caffeine is both water- and lipid-soluble, it readily crosses the bloodâ€"brain barrier that separates the bloodstream from the interior of the brain. Once in the brain, the principal mode of action is as a nonselective antagonist of adenosine receptors (in other words, an agent that reduces the effects of adenosine). The caffeine molecule is structurally similar to adenosine, and is capable of binding to adenosine receptors on the surface of cells without activating them, thereby acting as a competitive antagonist.

In addition to its activity at adenosine receptors, caffeine is an inositol trisphosphate receptor 1 antagonist and a voltage-independent activator of the ryanodine receptors (RYR1, RYR2, and RYR3). It is also a competitive antagonist of the ionotropic glycine receptor.

Effects on striatal dopamine

While caffeine does not directly bind to any dopamine receptors, it influences the binding activity of dopamine at its receptors in the striatum by binding to adenosine receptors that have formed GPCR heteromers with dopamine receptors, specifically the A₁â€"D₁ receptor heterodimer (this is a receptor complex with 1 adenosine A₁ receptor and 1 dopamine D₁ receptor) and the A_2Aâ€"D₂ receptor heterotetramer (this is a receptor complex with 2 adenosine A_2A receptors and 2 dopamine D₂ receptors). The A_2Aâ€"D₂ receptor heterotetramer has been identified as a primary pharmacological target of caffeine, primarily because it mediates some of its psychostimulant effects and its pharmacodynamic interactions with dopaminergic psychostimulants.

Caffeine also causes the release of dopamine in the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens core (a substructure within the ventral striatum), but not the nucleus accumbens shell, by antagonizing A₁ receptors in the axon terminal of dopamine neurons and A₁â€"A_2A heterodimers (a receptor complex composed of 1 adenosine A₁ receptor and 1 adenosine A_2A receptor) in the axon terminal of glutamate neurons. During chronic caffeine use, caffeine-induced dopamine release within the nucleus accumbens core is markedly reduced due to drug tolerance.

Enzyme targets

Caffeine, like other xanthines, also acts as a phosphodiesterase inhibitor. As a competitive nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitor, caffeine raises intracellular cAMP, activates protein kinase A, inhibits TNF-alpha and leukotriene synthesis, and reduces inflammation and innate immunity. Caffeine also affects the cholinergic system where it inhibits the enzyme acetylcholinesterase.

Off-target effects

Caffeine antagonizes adenosine A2A receptors in the ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPO), thereby reducing inhibitory GABA neurotransmission to the tuberomammillary nucleus, a histaminergic projection nucleus that activation-dependently promotes arousal. Disinhibition of the tuberomammillary nucleus is the chief mechanism by which caffeine produces wakefulness-promoting effects.

Pharmacokinetics

Caffeine from coffee or other beverages is absorbed by the small intestine within 45 minutes of ingestion and distributed throughout all bodily tissues. Peak blood concentration is reached within 1â€"2 hours. It is eliminated by first-order kinetics. Caffeine can also be absorbed rectally, evidenced by suppositories of ergotamine tartrate and caffeine (for the relief of migraine) and chlorobutanol and caffeine (for the treatment of hyperemesis). However, rectal absorption is less efficient than oral: the maximum concentration (C_max) and total amount absorbed (AUC) are both about 30% (i.e. 1/3.5) of the oral amounts.

Caffeine's biological half-life â€" the time required for the body to eliminate one-half of a dose â€" varies widely among individuals according to factors such as pregnancy, other drugs, liver enzyme function level (needed for caffeine metabolism) and age. In healthy adults, caffeine's half-life is between 3â€"7 hours. Nicotine decreases the half-life by 30â€"50%, while oral contraceptives can double it and pregnancy can raise it to as much as 15 hours during the last trimester. In newborns the half-life can be 80 hours or more, dropping very rapidly with age, possibly to less than the adult value by age 6 months. The antidepressant fluvoxamine (Luvox) reduces the clearance of caffeine by more than 90%, and increases its elimination half-life more than tenfold; from 4.9 hours to 56 hours.

Caffeine is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 oxidase enzyme system, in particular, by the CYP1A2 isozyme, into three dimethylxanthines, each of which has its own effects on the body:

• Paraxanthine (84%): Increases lipolysis, leading to elevated glycerol and free fatty acid levels in blood plasma.
• Theobromine (12%): Dilates blood vessels and increases urine volume. Theobromine is also the principal alkaloid in the cocoa bean (chocolate).
• Theophylline (4%): Relaxes smooth muscles of the bronchi, and is used to treat asthma. The therapeutic dose of theophylline, however, is many times greater than the levels attained from caffeine metabolism.

1,3,7-Trimethyluric acid is a minor caffeine metabolite. Each of these metabolites is further metabolized and then excreted in the urine. Caffeine can accumulate in individuals with severe liver disease, increasing its half-life.

A 2011 review found that increased caffeine intake was associated with a variation in two genes that increase the rate of caffeine catabolism. Subjects who had this mutation on both chromosomes consumed 40 mg more caffeine per day than others. This is presumably due to the need for a higher intake to achieve a comparable desired effect, not that the gene led to a disposition for greater incentive of habituation.

Chemistry

Pure anhydrous caffeine is a bitter-tasting white odorless powder with a melting point of 235â€"238 °C. Caffeine is moderately soluble in water at room temperature (2 g/100 mL), but very soluble in boiling water (66 g/100 mL). It is also moderately soluble in ethanol (1.5 g/100 mL). It is weakly basic (pK_a = ~0.6) requiring strong acid to protonate it. Caffeine does not contain any stereogenic centers and hence is classified as an achiral molecule.

The xanthine core of caffeine contains two fused rings, a pyrimidinedione and imidazole. The pyrimidinedione in turn contains two amide functional groups that exist predominately in a zwitterionic resonance the location from which the nitrogen atoms are double bonded to their adjacent amide carbons atoms. Hence all six of the atoms within the pyrimidinedione ring system are sp² hybridized and planar. Therefore, the fused 5,6 ring core of caffeine contains a total of ten pi electrons and hence according to Hückel's rule is aromatic.

Biosynthesis

The biosynthesis of caffeine is an example of convergent evolution among different species.

Caffeine may be synthesized in the lab starting with dimethylurea and malonic acid.

Commercial supplies of caffeine are not usually manufactured synthetically because the chemical it is readily available as a byproduct of decaffeination.

Decaffeination

Extraction of caffeine from coffee, to produce caffeine and decaffeinated coffee, can be performed using a number of solvents. Benzene, chloroform, trichloroethylene, and dichloromethane have all been used over the years but for reasons of safety, environmental impact, cost, and flavor, they have been superseded by the following main methods:

• Water extraction: Coffee beans are soaked in water. The water, which contains many other compounds in addition to caffeine and contributes to the flavor of coffee, is then passed through activated charcoal, which removes the caffeine. The water can then be put back with the beans and evaporated dry, leaving decaffeinated coffee with its original flavor. Coffee manufacturers recover the caffeine and resell it for use in soft drinks and over-the-counter caffeine tablets.
• Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction: Supercritical carbon dioxide is an excellent nonpolar solvent for caffeine, and is safer than the organic solvents that are otherwise used. The extraction process is simple: CO₂ is forced through the green coffee beans at temperatures above 31.1 °C and pressures above 73 atm. Under these conditions, CO₂ is in a "supercritical" state: It has gaslike properties that allow it to penetrate deep into the beans but also liquid-like properties that dissolve 97â€"99% of the caffeine. The caffeine-laden CO₂ is then sprayed with high pressure water to remove the caffeine. The caffeine can then be isolated by charcoal adsorption (as above) or by distillation, recrystallization, or reverse osmosis.
• Extraction by organic solvents: Certain organic solvents such as ethyl acetate present much less health and environmental hazard than chlorinated and aromatic organic solvents used formerly. Another method is to use triglyceride oils obtained from spent coffee grounds.

"Decaffeinated" coffees do in fact contain caffeine in many cases â€" some commercially available decaffeinated coffee products contain considerable levels. One study found that decaffeinated coffee contained 10 mg of caffeine per cup, compared to approximately 85 mg of caffeine per cup for regular coffee.

Detection in body fluids

Caffeine can be quantified in blood, plasma, or serum to monitor therapy in neonates, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or facilitate a medicolegal death investigation. Plasma caffeine levels are usually in the range of 2â€"10 mg/L in coffee drinkers, 12â€"36 mg/L in neonates receiving treatment for apnea, and 40â€"400 mg/L in victims of acute overdosage. Urinary caffeine concentration is frequently measured in competitive sports programs, for which a level in excess of 15 mg/L is usually considered to represent abuse.

Analogs

Some analog substances have been created which mimic caffeine's properties with either function or structure or both. Of the latter group are the xanthines DMPX and 8-chlorotheophylline, which is an ingredient in dramamine. Members of a class of nitrogen substituted xanthines are often proposed as potential alternatives to caffeine. Many other xanthine analogues constituting the adenosine receptor antagonist class have also been elucidated.

Some other caffeine analogs:

• Dipropylcyclopentylxanthine
• 8-Cyclopentyl-1,3-dimethylxanthine
• 8-Phenyltheophylline

Natural occurrence

Around sixty plant species are known to contain caffeine. Common sources are the "beans" (seeds) of the two cultivated coffee plants, Coffea arabica and C. canephora (the quantity varies, but 1.3% is a typical value); in the leaves of the tea bush; and in kola nuts. Other sources include yaupon holly leaves, South American holly yerba mate leaves, seeds from Amazonian maple guarana berries, and Amazonian holly guayusa leaves. Temperate climates around the world have produced unrelated caffeine containing plants.

Caffeine in plants acts as a natural pesticide: it can paralyze and kill predator insects feeding on the plant: high caffeine levels are found in coffee seedlings when they are developing foliage and lack mechanical protection. In addition, high caffeine levels are found in the surrounding soil of coffee seedlings, which inhibits seed germination of nearby coffee seedlings, thus giving seedlings with the highest caffeine levels fewer competitors for existing resources for survival.

The differing perceptions in the effects of ingesting beverages made from various plants containing caffeine could be explained by the fact that these beverages also contain varying mixtures of other methylxanthine alkaloids, including the cardiac stimulants theophylline and theobromine, and polyphenols that can form insoluble complexes with caffeine.

Products

Products containing caffeine are coffee, tea, soft drinks ("colas"), energy drinks, other beverages, chocolate, caffeine tablets, other oral products, and inhalation.

Beverages

Coffee

The world's primary source of caffeine is the coffee "bean" (the seed of the coffee plant), from which coffee is brewed. Caffeine content in coffee varies widely depending on the type of coffee bean and the method of preparation used; even beans within a given bush can show variations in concentration. In general, one serving of coffee ranges from 80 to 100 milligrams, for a single shot (30 milliliters) of arabica-variety espresso, to approximately 100â€"125 milligrams for a cup (120 milliliters) of drip coffee. Arabica coffee typically contains half the caffeine of the robusta variety. In general, dark-roast coffee has very slightly less caffeine than lighter roasts because the roasting process reduces caffeine content of the bean by a small amount.

Tea

Tea contains more caffeine than coffee by dry weight. A typical serving, however, contains much less, since tea is normally brewed more weakly than coffee. Also contributing to caffeine content are growing conditions, processing techniques, and other variables. Thus, certain types of tea may contain somewhat more caffeine than other teas.

Tea contains small amounts of theobromine and slightly higher levels of theophylline than coffee. Preparation and many other factors have a significant impact on tea, and color is a very poor indicator of caffeine content. Teas like the pale Japanese green tea, gyokuro, for example, contain far more caffeine than much darker teas like lapsang souchong, which has very little.

Soft drinks and energy drinks

Caffeine is also a common ingredient of soft drinks, such as cola, originally prepared from kola nuts. Soft drinks typically contain 0 to 55 milligrams of caffeine per 12 ounce serving. By contrast, energy drinks, such as Red Bull, can start at 80 milligrams of caffeine per serving. The caffeine in these drinks either originates from the ingredients used or is an additive derived from the product of decaffeination or from chemical synthesis. Guarana, a prime ingredient of energy drinks, contains large amounts of caffeine with small amounts of theobromine and theophylline in a naturally occurring slow-release excipient.

Other beverages

• Mate is a drink popular in many parts of South America. Its preparation consists of filling a gourd with the leaves of the South American holly yerba mate, pouring hot but not boiling water over the leaves, and drinking with a straw, the bombilla, which acts as a filter so as to draw only the liquid and not the yerba leaves.
• Guaraná seeds ("beans") are used in making the commercially sold beverage Guaraná Antarctica, which originated in Brazil and is currently the fifteenth most popular soft drink in the world.
• The leaves of Ilex guayusa, the Ecuadorian holly tree, are placed in boiling water to make a guayusa tea, which is both brewed locally and sold commercially throughout the world.

Chocolate

Chocolate derived from cocoa beans contains a small amount of caffeine. The weak stimulant effect of chocolate may be due to a combination of theobromine and theophylline, as well as caffeine. A typical 28-gram serving of a milk chocolate bar has about as much caffeine as a cup of decaffeinated coffee. By weight, dark chocolate has one to two times the amount of caffeine as coffee: 80â€"160 mg per 100 g.

Tablets

Tablets offer the advantages over coffee and tea of convenience, known dosage, and avoiding concomitant sugar, acid and fluid intake. Manufacturers of caffeine tablets claim that using caffeine of pharmaceutical quality improves mental alertness. These tablets are commonly used by students studying for their exams and by people who work or drive for long hours.

Other oral products

One U.S. company is marketing oral dissolvable caffeine strips. Another intake route is SpazzStick, a caffeinated lip balm. Alert Energy Caffeine Gum was introduced in the United States in 2013, but was voluntarily withdrawn after an announcement of an investigation by the FDA of the health effects of added caffeine in foods.

Inhalants

Taking caffeine by inhalation was under scrutiny by some U.S. lawmakers in 2011.

Combinations with other drugs

• Some beverages combine alcohol with caffeine to create a caffeinated alcoholic drink. The stimulant effects of caffeine may mask the depressant effects of alcohol, potentially reducing the user's awareness of their level of intoxication. Such beverages have been the subject of bans due to safety concerns. In particular, United States Food and Drug Administration has classified caffeine added to malt liquor beverages as an "unsafe food additive".
• Ya ba contains a combination of methamphetamine and caffeine.

History

Discovery and spread of use

According to Chinese legend, the Chinese emperor Shennong, reputed to have reigned in about 3000 BCE, accidentally discovered tea when he noted that when certain leaves fell into boiling water, a fragrant and restorative drink resulted. Shennong is also mentioned in Lu Yu's Cha Jing, a famous early work on the subject of tea.

The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemenin southern Arabia. From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Middle East, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas.

Kola nut use appears to have ancient origins. It is chewed in many West African cultures, individually or in a social setting, to restore vitality and ease hunger pangs.

The earliest evidence of cocoa bean use comes from residue found in an ancient Mayan pot dated to 600 BCE. Also, chocolate was consumed in a bitter and spicy drink called xocolatl, often seasoned with vanilla, chile pepper, and achiote. Xocolatl was believed to fight fatigue, a belief probably attributable to the theobromine and caffeine content. Chocolate was an important luxury good throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and cocoa beans were often used as currency.

Xocolatl was introduced to Europe by the Spaniards, and became a popular beverage by 1700. The Spaniards also introduced the cacao tree into the West Indies and the Philippines. It was used in alchemical processes, where it was known as "black bean".

The leaves and stems of the yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria) were used by Native Americans to brew a tea called asi or the "black drink". Archaeologists have found evidence of this use far into antiquity, possibly dating to Late Archaic times.

Chemical identification, isolation, and synthesis

In 1819, the German chemist Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge isolated relatively pure caffeine for the first time; he called it "Kaffebase" (i.e. a base that exists in coffee). According to Runge, he did this at the behest of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. In 1821, caffeine was isolated both by the French chemist Pierre Jean Robiquet and by another pair of French chemists, Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou, according to Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius in his yearly journal. Furthermore, Berzelius stated that the French chemists had made their discoveries independently of any knowledge of Runge's or each other's work. However, Berzelius later acknowledged Runge's priority in the extraction of caffeine, stating: "However, at this point, it should not remain unmentioned that Runge (in his Phytochemical Discoveries, 1820, pages 146â€"147) specified the same method and described caffeine under the name Caffeebase a year earlier than Robiquet, to who m the discovery of this substance is usually attributed, having made the first oral announcement about it at a meeting of the Pharmacy Society in Paris."

Pelletier's article on caffeine was the first to use the term in print (in the French form Caféine from the French word for coffee: café). It corroborates Berzelius's account:

Caffeine, noun (feminine). Crystallizable substance discovered in coffee in 1821 by Mr. Robiquet. During the same period â€" while they were searching for quinine in coffee because coffee is considered by several doctors to be a medicine that reduces fevers and because coffee belongs to the same family as the cinchona [quinine] tree â€" on their part, Messrs. Pelletier and Caventou obtained caffeine; but because their research had a different goal and because their research had not been finished, they left priority on this subject to Mr. Robiquet. We do not know why Mr. Robiquet has not published the analysis of coffee which he read to the Pharmacy Society. Its publication would have allowed us to make caffeine better known and give us accurate ideas of coffee's composition ...

Robiquet was one of the first to isolate and describe the properties of pure caffeine, whereas Pelletier was the first to perform an elemental analysis.

In 1827, M. Oudry isolated "théine" from tea, but it was later proved by Mulder and by Carl Jobst that theine was actually caffeine.

In 1895, German chemist Hermann Emil Fischer (1852â€"1919) first synthesized caffeine from its chemical components (i.e. a "total synthesis"), and two years later, he also derived the structural formula of the compound. This was part of the work for which Fischer was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1902.

Historic regulations

Because it was recognized that coffee contained some compound that acted as a stimulant, first coffee and later also caffeine has sometimes been subject to regulation. For example, in the 16th century Islamists in Mecca and in the Ottoman Empire made coffee illegal for some classes. Charles II of England tried to ban it in 1676, Frederick II of Prussia banned it in 1777, and coffee was banned in Sweden at various times between 1756 and 1823.

In 1911, caffeine became the focus of one of the earliest documented health scares, when the US government seized 40 barrels and 20 kegs of Coca-Cola syrup in Chattanooga, Tennessee, alleging the caffeine in its drink was "injurious to health". Although the judge ruled in favor of Coca-Cola, two bills were introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1912 to amend the Pure Food and Drug Act, adding caffeine to the list of "habit-forming" and "deleterious" substances, which must be listed on a product's label.

Society and culture

Regulations

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States currently allows only beverages containing less than 0.02% caffeine; but caffeine powder, which is sold as a dietary supplement, is unregulated. It is a regulatory requirement that the label of most prepackaged foods must declare a list of ingredients, including food additives such as caffeine, in descending order of proportion. However, there is no regulatory provision for mandatory quantitative labeling of caffeine, (e.g., milligrams caffeine per stated serving size). There are a number of food ingredients that naturally contain caffeine. These ingredients must appear in food ingredient lists. However, as is the case for "food additive caffeine", there is no requirement to identify the quantitative amount of caffeine in composite foods containing ingredients that are natural sources of caffeine. While coffee or chocolate are broadly recognized as caffeine sources, some ingredients (e.g. guarana, yerba maté) are likely less recognized as caffeine sources. For these natural sources of caffeine, there is no regulatory provision requiring that a food label identify the presence of caffeine nor state the amount of caffeine present in the food.

Consumption

Global consumption of caffeine has been estimated at 120,000 tonnes per year, making it the world's most popular psychoactive substance. This amounts to one serving of a caffeinated beverage for every person every day.

Religions

Some Seventh-day Adventists, Church of God (Restoration) adherents, and Christian Scientists do not consume caffeine. Some from these religions believe that one is not supposed to consume a non-medical, psychoactive substance, or believe that one is not supposed to consume a substance that is addictive. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has said the following with regard to caffeinated beverages: " . . . the Church revelation spelling out health practices (Doctrine and Covenants 89) does not mention the use of caffeine. The Church's health guidelines prohibit alcoholic drinks, smoking or chewing of tobacco, and 'hot drinks' â€" taught by Church leaders to refer specifically to tea and coffee."

Gaudiya Vaishnavas generally also abstain from caffeine, because they believe it clouds the mind and over-stimulates the senses. To be initiated under a guru, one must have had no caffeine, alcohol, nicotine or other drugs, for at least a year.

Caffeinated beverages are widely consumed by Muslims today. In the 16th century, some Muslim authorities made unsuccessful attempts to ban them as forbidden "intoxicating beverages" under Islamic dietary laws.

Other organisms

Pseudomonas putida CBB5 can live on pure caffeine, and can cleave caffeine into carbon dioxide and ammonia.

Caffeine is toxic to birds and to dogs and cats, and has a pronounced adverse effect on mollusks, various insects, and spiders. This is at least partly due to a poor ability to metabolize the compound, causing higher levels for a given dose per unit weight. Caffeine has also been found to enhance the reward memory of honeybees, improving the reproductive success of the pollen producing plants.

Research

Caffeine has been used to double chromosomes in haploid wheat.

References

Bibliography

• Bersten, Ian (1999). Coffee, Sex & Health: A history of anti-coffee crusaders and sexual hysteria. Sydney: Helian Books. ISBN 0-9577581-0-3. 
• Pendergrast, Mark (2001) [1999]. Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World. London: Texere. ISBN 1-58799-088-1. 

External links

• GMD MS Spectrum
• The Consumers Union Report on Licit and Illicit Drugs, Caffeine-Part 1 Part 2
• Caffeine: ChemSub Online
• Caffeine at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
• Caffeine International Chemical Safety Cards
• Mayo Clinic staff (3 October 2009). "Caffeine content for coffee, tea, soda and more". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 8 November 2010. 

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